Therapeutic potential of TRPM8 antagonists in prostate cancer

Filamin A cooperates with the androgen receptor in preventing skeletal muscle senescence

Aging induces a slow and progressive decrease in muscle mass and function, causing sarcopenia. Androgens control muscle trophism and exert important anabolic functions through the binding to the androgen receptor. Therefore, analysis of the androgen receptor-mediated actions in skeletal muscle might provide new hints for a better understanding of sarcopenia pathogenesis. In this study, we report that expression of the androgen receptor in skeletal muscle biopsies from 20 subjects is higher in young, as compared with old subjects. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments reveal that the androgen receptor is complexed with filamin A mainly in young, that in old subjects. Therefore, we have in depth analyzed the role of such complex using C2C12 myoblasts that express a significant amount of the androgen receptor. In these cells, hormone stimulation rapidly triggers the assembly of the androgen receptor/filamin A complex. Such complex prevents the senescence induced by oxidative stress in C2C12 cells, as disruption of the androgen receptor/filamin A complex by Rh-2025u stapled peptide re-establishes the senescent phenotype in C2C12 cells. Simultaneously, androgen stimulation of C2C12 cells rapidly triggers the activation of various signaling effectors, including Rac1, focal adhesion kinase, and mitogen-activated kinases. Androgen receptor blockade by bicalutamide or perturbation of androgen receptor/filamin A complex by Rh-2025u stapled peptide both reverse the hormone activation of signaling effectors. These findings further reinforce the role of the androgen receptor and its extranuclear partners in the rapid hormone signaling that controls the functions of C2C12 cells. Further investigations are needed to promote clinical interventions that might ameliorate muscle cell function as well the clinical outcome of age-related frailty.

Calcium signalling pathways in prostate cancer initiation and progression

Cancer cells proliferate, differentiate and migrate by repurposing physiological signalling mechanisms. In particular, altered calcium signalling is emerging as one of the most widespread adaptations in cancer cells. Remodelling of calcium signalling promotes the development of several malignancies, including prostate cancer. Gene expression data from in vitro, in vivo and bioinformatics studies using patient samples and xenografts have shown considerable changes in the expression of various components of the calcium signalling toolkit during the development of prostate cancer. Moreover, preclinical and clinical evidence suggests that altered calcium signalling is a crucial component of the molecular re-programming that drives prostate cancer progression. Evidence points to calcium signalling re-modelling, commonly involving crosstalk between calcium and other cellular signalling pathways, underpinning the onset and temporal progression of this disease. Discrete alterations in calcium signalling have been implicated in hormone-sensitive, castration-resistant and aggressive variant forms of prostate cancer. Hence, modulation of calcium signals and downstream effector molecules is a plausible therapeutic strategy for both early and late stages of prostate cancer. Based on this premise, clinical trials have been undertaken to establish the feasibility of targeting calcium signalling specifically for prostate cancer.

Transcriptome Profiling of Circulating Tumor Cells to Predict Clinical Outcomes in Metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer

The clinical utility of circulating tumor cells (CTC) as a non-invasive multipurpose biomarker is broadly recognized. The earliest methods for enriching CTCs from whole blood rely on antibody-based positive selection. The prognostic utility of CTC enumeration using positive selection with the FDA-approved CellSearch^TM system has been demonstrated in numerous studies. The capture of cells with specific protein phenotypes does not fully represent cancer heterogeneity and therefore does not realize the prognostic potential of CTC liquid biopsies. To avoid this selection bias, CTC enrichment based on size and deformability may provide better fidelity, i.e., facilitate the characterization of CTCs with any phenotype. In this study, the recently FDA-approved Parsortix^® technology was used to enrich CTCs from prostate cancer (PCa) patients for transcriptome analysis using HyCEAD^TM technology. A tailored PCa gene panel allowed us to stratify metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) patients with clinical outcomes. In addition, our findings suggest that targeted CTC transcriptome profiling may be predictive of therapy response.

The Role of Calcium Channels in Prostate Cancer Progression and Potential as a Druggable Target for Prostate Cancer Treatment

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most diagnosed cancer among men. Discovering novel prognostic biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets are critical. Calcium signaling has been implicated in PCa progression and development of treatment resistance. Altered modification of Ca²⁺ flows leads to serious pathophysiological processes, such as malignant transformation, tumor proliferation, epithelial to mesenchymal transition, evasion of apoptosis, and treatment resistance. Calcium channels control and contribute to these processes. PCa has shown defective Ca²⁺ channels, which subsequently promotes tumor metastasis and growth. Store-operated Ca²⁺ entry channels such as Orai and STIM channels and transient receptor potential channels play a significant role in PCa pathogenesis. Pharmacological modulation of these calcium channels or pumps has been suggested as a practical approach. In this review, we discuss the role of calcium channels in PCa development and progression, and we identify current novel discoveries of drugs that target specific calcium channels for the treatment of PCa.

Let’s Go 3D! New Generation of Models for Evaluating Drug Response and Resistance in Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer (PC) is the third most frequently diagnosed cancer worldwide and the second most frequent in men. Several risk factors can contribute to the development of PC, and those include age, family history, and specific genetic mutations. So far, drug testing in PC, as well as in cancer research in general, has been performed on 2D cell cultures. This is mainly because of the vast benefits these models provide, including simplicity and cost effectiveness. However, it is now known that these models are exposed to much higher stiffness; lose physiological extracellular matrix on artificial plastic surfaces; and show changes in differentiation, polarization, and cell–cell communication. This leads to the loss of crucial cellular signaling pathways and changes in cell responses to stimuli when compared to in vivo conditions. Here, we emphasize the importance of a diverse collection of 3D PC models and their benefits over 2D models in drug discovery and screening from the studies done so far, outlining their benefits and limitations. We highlight the differences between the diverse types of 3D models, with the focus on tumor–stroma interactions, cell populations, and extracellular matrix composition, and we summarize various standard and novel therapies tested on 3D models of PC for the purpose of raising awareness of the possibilities for a personalized approach in PC therapy.

The Role οf Ion Channels in the Development and Progression of Prostate Cancer

Ion channels have major regulatory functions in living cells. Apart from their role in ion transport, they are responsible for cellular electrogenesis and excitability, and may also regulate tissue homeostasis. Although cancer is not officially classified as a channelopathy, it has been increasingly recognized that ion channel aberrations play an important role in virtually all cancer types. Ion channels can exert pro-tumorigenic activities due to genetic or epigenetic alterations, or as a response to molecular signals, such as growth factors, hormones, etc. Increasing evidence suggests that ion channels and pumps play a critical role in the regulation of prostate cancer cell proliferation, apoptosis evasion, migration, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, and angiogenesis. There is also evidence suggesting that ion channels might play a role in treatment failure in patients with prostate cancer. Hence, they represent promising targets for diagnosis, staging, and treatment, and their effects may be of particular significance for specific patient populations, including those undergoing anesthesia and surgery. In this article, the role of major types of ion channels involved in the development and progression of prostate cancer are reviewed. Identifying the underlying molecular mechanisms of the pro-tumorigenic effects of ion channels may potentially inform the development of novel therapeutic strategies to counter this malignancy.

On the modulation of TRPM channels: Current perspectives and anticancer therapeutic implications

The transient melastatin receptor potential (TRPM) ion channel subfamily functions as cellular sensors and transducers of critical biological signal pathways by regulating ion homeostasis. Some members of TRPM have been cloned from cancerous tissues, and their abnormal expressions in various solid malignancies have been correlated with cancer cell growth, survival, or death. Recent evidence also highlights the mechanisms underlying the role of TRPMs in tumor epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), autophagy, and cancer metabolic reprogramming. These implications support TRPM channels as potential molecular targets and their modulation as an innovative therapeutic approach against cancer. Here, we discuss the general characteristics of the different TRPMs, focusing on current knowledge about the connection between TRPM channels and critical features of cancer. We also cover TRPM modulators used as pharmaceutical tools in biological trials and an indication of the only clinical trial with a TRPM modulator about cancer. To conclude, the authors describe the prospects for TRPM channels in oncology.

CHRDL1, NEFH, TAGLN and SYNM as novel diagnostic biomarkers of benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate cancer

BACKGROUND

Prostate cancer (PCa) and benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) are common male diseases whose incidence rates gradually increase with age. They seriously affect men's physical health and quality of life. This study aimed to identify new biomarkers for the diagnosis of BPH and PCa.

METHODS

Two datasets, GSE28204 and GSE134051 (including human PCa and BPH), were downloaded from the GEO database. The batch effect was removed for merging, and then differential gene expression analysis was conducted to identify BPH and PCa cases. The diagnostic biomarkers of BPH and PCa were further screened using machine learning and bioinformatics. ROC curves were drawn to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of the selected biomarkers. An online website and qPCR were used to preliminarily explore the expression levels of PCa biomarkers. The correlations between the expression of biomarkers and the tumor microenvironment, tumor mutation load and immunotherapy drugs were evaluated.

RESULTS

We identified fifteen genes (CHRDL1, DES, FLNC, GSTP1, MYL9, TGFB3, NEFH, TAGLN, SPARCL1, SYNM, TRPM8, HPN, PLA2G7, ENTPD5 and GPR160) as critical diagnostic biomarkers. After reviewing the literature on all selected biomarkers, we found few studies on the four genes CHRDL1, NEFH, TAGLN and SYNM in BPH or PCa. We defined these four genes as new potential diagnostic biomarkers (NPDBs) of BPH and PCa. All NPDBs were downregulated in PCa patients and PCa cell lines and upregulated in BPH patients and cell lines. When the immune landscape and mutation frequencies were analyzed, the results showed that the tumor microenvironment (TME), immune landscape, tumor mutation burden, and drug response were significantly correlated with NPDB expressions.

CONCLUSIONS

We found four new diagnostic markers of BPH and PCa, which may facilitate the early diagnosis, treatment, and immunotherapeutic responses assessment and may be of major value in guiding clinical practice.

Therapeutic potential of TRPM8 channels in cancer treatment

Cancer is a multifactorial process associated with changes in signaling pathways leading to cell cycle variations and gene expression. The transient receptor potential melastatin 8 (TRPM8) channel is a non-selective cation channel expressed in neuronal and non-neuronal tissues, where it is involved in several processes, including thermosensation, differentiation, and migration. Cancer is a multifactorial process associated with changes in signaling pathways leading to variations in cell cycle and gene expression. Interestingly, it has been shown that TRPM8 channels also participate in physiological processes related to cancer, such as proliferation, survival, and invasion. For instance, TRPM8 channels have an important role in the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of prostate cancer. In addition, it has been reported that TRPM8 channels are involved in the progress of pancreatic, breast, bladder, colon, gastric, and skin cancers, glioblastoma, and neuroblastoma. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the role of TRPM8 channels in cancer progression. We also discuss the therapeutic potential of TRPM8 in carcinogenesis, which has been proposed as a molecular target for cancer therapy.

The SMARCD Family of SWI/SNF Accessory Proteins Is Involved in the Transcriptional Regulation of Androgen Receptor-Driven Genes and Plays a Role in Various Essential Processes of Prostate Cancer

Previous studies have demonstrated an involvement of chromatin-remodelling SWI/SNF complexes in the development of prostate cancer, suggesting both tumor suppressor and oncogenic activities. SMARCD1/BAF60A, SMARCD2/BAF60B, and SMARCD3/BAF60C are mutually exclusive accessory subunits that confer functional specificity and are components of all known SWI/SNF subtypes. To assess the role of SWI/SNF in prostate tumorigenesis, we studied the functions and functional relations of the SMARCD family members. Performing RNA-seq in LnCAP cells grown in the presence or absence of dihydrotestosterone, we found that the SMARCD proteins are involved in the regulation of numerous hormone-dependent AR-driven genes. Moreover, we demonstrated that all SMARCD proteins can regulate AR-downstream targets in androgen-depleted cells, suggesting an involvement in the progression to castration-resistance. However, our approach also revealed a regulatory role for SMARCD proteins through antagonization of AR-signalling. We further demonstrated that the SMARCD proteins are involved in several important cellular processes such as the maintenance of cellular morphology and cytokinesis. Taken together, our findings suggest that the SMARCD proteins play an important, yet paradoxical, role in prostate carcinogenesis. Our approach also unmasked the complex interplay of paralogue SWI/SNF proteins that must be considered for the development of safe and efficient therapies targeting SWI/SNF.

Development and validation of a TRP-related gene signature for overall survival prediction in lung adenocarcinoma

The transient receptor potential (TRP) channel is a type of channel protein widely distributed in peripheral and central nervous systems. Genes encoding TRP can be regulated by natural aromatic substances and serve as a therapeutic target for many diseases. However, the role of TRP-related genes in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) remains unclear. In this study, we used data from TCGA to screen and identify 17 TRP-related genes that are differentially expressed between LUAD and normal lung tissues. Based on these differentially expressed genes (DEGs), we classified all patients with LUAD into two subtypes. Significant differences in prognosis, clinical features, and immune cell infiltration characteristics were observed between the two subtypes. Subsequently, a prognostic signature with 12 genes was established by applying the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) Cox regression method, and all patients with LUAD were classified into low- and high-risk groups. Patients with LUAD in the low-risk group had a significantly longer survival time than those in the high-risk group (p < 0.001), which was confirmed by LUAD data from the GSE72094 and GSE68571 validation datasets. Combined with clinical characteristics, the risk score was found to be an independent predictor of overall survival (OS) in patients with LUAD. Additionally, patients with high TRP scores exhibited poorer clinical characteristics and immune status while showing a sensitive response to chemotherapeutic agents. In conclusion, the TRP score is a promising biomarker for determining the prognosis, molecular subtype, tumor microenvironment, and guiding personalized treatment in patients with LUAD.

Low expression and Hypermethylation of ATP2B1 in Intrahepatic Cholangiocarcinoma Correlated With Cold Tumor Microenvironment

Background

The efficacy of current therapeutic schedule is limited owing to fibroproliferative tumor microenvironment (TME) of cholangiocarcinoma, compelling a search for new therapeutic targets.

Methods

Gene expression profiles and methylation profiles were obtained from UCSC Xena. Consensus clustering was performed on the transcriptome data of cholangiocarcinoma to determine the different immune subtypes. The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between hot tumor and cold tumors were identified. ESTIMATE was used to assess immune score, and the cases were separated into relatively superior and inferior immune score groups. Single-sample gene set enrichment analysis was applied to assess 28 immune cells in the cholangiocarcinoma microenvironment. Unsupervised consensus was applied for methylation profiling to distribute the high and low methylation groups. The correlation between DNA methylation and mRNA expression was investigated, and the relationship between the ATP2B1 gene and the immune microenvironment was explored. Finally, 77 cases of intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ICC) were collected for verification.

Results

Seven subtypes were related to patient outcomes (P=0.005). The proportions of CD8⁺ T cells in the “hot” immune type was significantly greater than that in the “cold” immune type (P<0.05). Next, DEGs and DNA methylation-governed genes were intersected, and ATP2B1 was identified as a prognosis factor in ICC (P=0.035). ATP2B1 expression was positively correlated with immune scores (P=0.005, r=0.458), the levels of infiltrating CD8⁺ T cells (P=0.004, r=0.47), and CD4⁺ T cells (P=0.027, r=0.37). Immunohistochemistry confirmed that the amounts of CD8⁺ and CD4⁺ T cells were significantly higher in ICC tissue samples than in tissues with ATP2B1 overexpression (P<0.05).

Conclusions

ATP2B1 overexpression can activate immune signals and prompt cold tumor response.

The Pan-Cancer Landscape of Crosstalk Between TRP Family and Tumour Microenvironment Relevant to Prognosis and Immunotherapy Response

Background

Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) channel is a kind of channel protein widely distributed in peripheral and central nervous system. They can be regulated by natural aromatic substances and serve as a therapeutic target for many diseases. However, the role and function of the TRP family genes in tumours remain unclear.

Methods

Gene alterations (mutation, copy number, methylation), expression, clinical features, and prognostic value of the TRP family genes were evaluated in pan-cancer using data from The Cancer Genome Atlas and Genotype-Tissue Expression databases. TRP score was calculated by the ssGSEA function of the R package "GSVA". The association of TRP score and the tumour microenvironment (TME), especially the tumour immune microenvironment (TIME), along with immunotherapy response were explored in-depth.

Results

TRP family genes were involved in tumour progression and highly associated with poor prognosis in a variety of cancers. TRP score was positively associated with malignant pathways in pan-cancer, such as IL6-JAK-STAT3 signalling, interferon-gamma response, and inflammatory response. All pathways were closely associated with TIME. Elevated TRP score also correlated with multiple immune-related characteristics of the TIME in pan-cancer. Moreover, the TRP score was a predictive biomarker for immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) treatments in patients with tumours.

Conclusions

TRP family genes play a key role in pan-cancer and are closely associated with TME. Patients with high TRP scores have excellent immune-activated TIME and immunotherapy sensitivity. Therefore, the TRP score could be a potential biomarker for patients with tumours treated with ICI.

In Vitro and In Vivo Pharmacological Characterization of a Novel TRPM8 Inhibitor Chemotype Identified by Small-Scale Preclinical Screening

Transient receptor potential melastatin type 8 (TRPM8) is a target for the treatment of different physio-pathological processes. While TRPM8 antagonists are reported as potential drugs for pain, cancer, and inflammation, to date only a limited number of chemotypes have been investigated and thus a limited number of compounds have reached clinical trials. Hence there is high value in searching for new TRPM8 antagonistic to broaden clues to structure-activity relationships, improve pharmacological properties and explore underlying molecular mechanisms. To address this, the EDASA Scientific in-house molecular library has been screened in silico, leading to identifying twenty-one potentially antagonist compounds of TRPM8. Calcium fluorometric assays were used to validate the in-silico hypothesis and assess compound selectivity. Four compounds were identified as selective TRPM8 antagonists, of which two were dual-acting TRPM8/TRPV1 modulators. The most potent TRPM8 antagonists (BB 0322703 and BB 0322720) underwent molecular modelling studies to highlight key structural features responsible for drug–protein interaction. The two compounds were also investigated by patch-clamp assays, confirming low micromolar potencies. The most potent compound (BB 0322703, IC₅₀ 1.25 ± 0.26 μM) was then profiled in vivo in a cold allodinya model, showing pharmacological efficacy at 30 μM dose. The new chemotypes identified showed remarkable pharmacological properties paving the way to further investigations for drug discovery and pharmacological purposes.

New Insights and Emerging Therapeutic Approaches in Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer is the second most frequently diagnosed cancer in men and several therapeutic approaches are currently available for patient's care. Although the androgen receptor status represents a good predictor of response to androgen deprivation therapy, prostate cancer frequently becomes resistant to this approach and spreads. The molecular mechanisms that contribute to progression and drug-resistance of this cancer remain still debated. However, few therapeutic options are available for patient's management, at this stage. Recent years have seen a great expansion of the studies concerning the role of stromal-epithelial interactions and tumor microenvironment in prostate cancer progression. The findings so far collected have provided new insights into diagnostic and clinical management of prostate cancer patients. Further, new fascinating aspects concerning the intersection of the androgen receptor with survival factors as well as calcium channels have been reported in cultured prostate cancer cells and mouse models. The results of these researches have opened the way for a better understanding of the basic mechanisms involved in prostate cancer invasion and drug-resistance. They have also significantly expanded the list of new biomarkers and druggable targets in prostate cancer. The primary aim of this manuscript is to provide an update of these issues, together with their translational aspects. Exploiting the power of novel promising therapeutics would increase the success rate in the diagnostic path and clinical management of patients with advanced disease.

A Small Peptide Targeting the Ligand-Induced Androgen Receptor/Filamin a Interaction Inhibits the Invasive Phenotype of Prostate Cancer Cells

Prostate cancer (PC) is one of the most widespread malignancies among males worldwide. The androgen receptor (AR) plays a major role in prostate cancer development and progression and is the main target of PC therapy. Nonetheless, its action is not yet fully elucidated. We report here that the AR associates with Filamin A (FlnA) promoting migration and invasiveness of various PC-derived cells after androgen challenging. Inhibition of the AR/FlnA complex assembly by a very low concentration of Rh-2025u, an AR-derived peptide specifically interfering with this association, impairs such phenotype in monolayer cells and in 3D models. This study, together with our recent data in cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), indicates that targeting the AR/FlnA complex could improve the clinical management of invasive PC, as the limited number of new drugs reaching the market suggests that we must re-examine the way invasive PC is currently treated. In this context, the synthesis of new biologically active molecules, such as the Rh-2025u peptide, which has been shown to efficiently interfere in the complex assembly in CAFs and PC cells, should overcome the limits of current available therapies, mostly based on hormone antagonists.