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Liu S, Su C, Zhang D, Song Z, Wang X, Wang J, Yuan X. Construction of a Delivery Platform for Vaccine Based on Modified Nanotubes: Sustainable Prevention against Plant Viral Disease, Simplified Preparation Method, and Protection of Plasmid. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2023; 15:44541-44553. [PMID: 37672476 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c09168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/08/2023]
Abstract
Control of plant viral diseases through cross-protection conferred by an attenuated vaccine is an important strategy for plant protection. However, the mutated site of an attenuated vaccine may not be stably inherited, while viruses have evolved efficient repair mechanisms for the maintenance of genomic integrity. Here, the wide host range and broad selection of mutation sites in cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) enabled construction of an attenuated vaccine through insertional mutation of the CMV 2b protein. CMV-R2E was stably inherited in tobacco for more than 10 generations and had a high relative control efficacy of CMV. Then, the use of polyetherimide (PEI)-modified functionalized carboxylated single-walled carbon nanotubes (PSWNTs) was investigated for vaccine delivery to address the problems of poor stability, complex procedure on field application, and exacting storage conditions with Agrobacterium inoculation. After co-incubating at a 1:300 ratio for 30 min, the vaccine and PSWNTs combined to form pCMV-R2E@PSWNTs, which resulted in a significant increase in the average height of the nanoparticles from 6.56 to 72.34 nm. The relative control efficacy of pCMV-R2E@PSWNTs to CMV was found to be 90.37%. Furthermore, the protective effect of PSWNTs on plasmids was investigated under various environmental conditions and the potential plant toxicity of pCMV-R2E@PSWNTs was assessed, providing a theoretical basis for field application of the vaccine nano-delivery system. A highly effective, stable viral vaccine for plants was thus developed and combined with nanocarriers to address the problems of field application. This approach has the potential to enable wider use of attenuated vaccines for sustainable prevention against plant viral disease in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanshan Liu
- Pest Integrated Management Key Laboratory of China Tobacco, Tobacco Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Qingdao 266100, P. R. China
| | - Chenyu Su
- Pest Integrated Management Key Laboratory of China Tobacco, Tobacco Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Qingdao 266100, P. R. China
| | - Deping Zhang
- China Tobacco Guangxi Industrial Co., Ltd., Nanning 530000, P. R. China
| | - Zhanfeng Song
- China Tobacco Guangxi Industrial Co., Ltd., Nanning 530000, P. R. China
| | - Xinwei Wang
- Pest Integrated Management Key Laboratory of China Tobacco, Tobacco Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Qingdao 266100, P. R. China
| | - Jie Wang
- Pest Integrated Management Key Laboratory of China Tobacco, Tobacco Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Qingdao 266100, P. R. China
| | - Xuefeng Yuan
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an 271000, P. R. China
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Liu S, Mu J, Yu C, Geng G, Su C, Yuan X. Multiple Levels of Triggered Factors and the Obligated Requirement of Cell-to-Cell Movement in the Mutation Repair of Cucumber Mosaic Virus with Defects in the tRNA-like Structure. Biology 2022; 11:1051. [PMID: 36101429 PMCID: PMC9312275 DOI: 10.3390/biology11071051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Revised: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Based on analysis of the tRNA-like structure (TLS) mutation in cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), mutation repair is correlated with several levels of triggered factors, including the dose of inoculation of virus mutants, the quantity effect on corresponding viral RNA, and the quality effect on corresponding viral RNA. All types of TLS mutation in different RNAs of CMV can be repaired at a low dose around the dilution end-point. At a high dose of inoculation, TLS mutations in RNA2 and RNA3, but not RNA1, can be repaired, which correlates with the relative quantity defect of RNA2 or the genome size defect of RNA3. In addition, all the above types of mutation repair necessarily require cell-to-cell movement, which presents the obligated effect of cell-to-cell movement on mutation repair. Abstract Some debilitating mutations in RNA viruses are repairable; however, the triggering factors of mutation repair remain largely unknown. In this study, multiple triggering factors of mutation repair are identified based on genetic damage to the TLS in CMV. TLS mutations in different RNAs distinctively impact viral pathogenicity and present different types of mutation repair. RNA2 relative reduction level or RNA3 sequence change resulting from TLS mutation is correlated with a high rate of mutation repair, and the TLS mutation of RNA1 fails to be repaired at the high inoculum dose. However, the TLS mutation of RNA1 can be repaired at a low dose of inoculation, particularly around the dilution end-point or in the mixed inoculation with RNA2 having a pre-termination mutation of the 2b gene, an RNAi suppressor. Taken together, TLS mutations resulting in quality or quantity defects of the viral genome or TLS mutations at low doses around the dilution end-point are likely to be repaired. Different levels of TLS mutation repair necessarily require cell-to-cell movement, therefore implying its obligated effect on the evolution of low-fitness viruses and providing a new insight into Muller’s ratchet. This study provides important information on virus evolution and the application of mild viral vaccines.
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Glenet M, Heng L, Callon D, Lebreil AL, Gretteau PA, Nguyen Y, Berri F, Andreoletti L. Structures and Functions of Viral 5' Non-Coding Genomic RNA Domain-I in Group-B Enterovirus Infections. Viruses 2020; 12:E919. [PMID: 32839386 DOI: 10.3390/v12090919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Group-B enteroviruses (EV-B) are ubiquitous naked single-stranded positive RNA viral pathogens that are responsible for common acute or persistent human infections. Their genome is composed in the 5′ end by a non-coding region, which is crucial for the initiation of the viral replication and translation processes. RNA domain-I secondary structures can interact with viral or cellular proteins to form viral ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes regulating viral genomic replication, whereas RNA domains-II to -VII (internal ribosome entry site, IRES) are known to interact with cellular ribosomal subunits to initiate the viral translation process. Natural 5′ terminally deleted viral forms lacking some genomic RNA domain-I secondary structures have been described in EV-B induced murine or human infections. Recent in vitro studies have evidenced that the loss of some viral RNP complexes in the RNA domain-I can modulate the viral replication and infectivity levels in EV-B infections. Moreover, the disruption of secondary structures of RNA domain-I could impair viral RNA sensing by RIG-I (Retinoic acid inducible gene I) or MDA5 (melanoma differentiation-associated protein 5) receptors, a way to overcome antiviral innate immune response. Overall, natural 5′ terminally deleted viral genomes resulting in the loss of various structures in the RNA domain-I could be major key players of host–cell interactions driving the development of acute or persistent EV-B infections.
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Agol VI. In pursuit of intriguing puzzles. Virology 2020; 539:49-60. [PMID: 31670219 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2019.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2019] [Revised: 10/09/2019] [Accepted: 10/17/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
This Invited Review is a kind of scientific autobiography based on the presentation at the Symposium "Viruses: Discovering Big in Small" held in honor of the author's 90th birthday (Moscow, March 2019).
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Affiliation(s)
- Vadim I Agol
- Institute of Poliomyelitis, M. P. Chumakov Center for Research and Development of Immunobiological Products, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 108819, Russia; A. N. Belozersky Institute of Physical-Chemical Biology, M. V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119899, Russia.
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Sexton NR, Ebel GD. Effects of Arbovirus Multi-Host Life Cycles on Dinucleotide and Codon Usage Patterns. Viruses 2019; 11:v11070643. [PMID: 31336898 PMCID: PMC6669465 DOI: 10.3390/v11070643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Revised: 07/09/2019] [Accepted: 07/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) of vertebrates including dengue, zika, chikungunya, Rift Valley fever, and blue tongue viruses cause extensive morbidity and mortality in humans, agricultural animals, and wildlife across the globe. As obligate intercellular pathogens, arboviruses must be well adapted to the cellular and molecular environment of both their arthropod (invertebrate) and vertebrate hosts, which are vastly different due to hundreds of millions of years of separate evolution. Here we discuss the comparative pressures on arbovirus RNA genomes as a result of a dual host life cycle, focusing on pressures that do not alter amino acids. We summarize what is currently known about arboviral genetic composition, such as dinucleotide and codon usage, and how cyclical infection of vertebrate and invertebrate hosts results in different genetic profiles compared with single-host viruses. To serve as a comparison, we compile what is known about arthropod tRNA, dinucleotide, and codon usages and compare this with vertebrates. Additionally, we discuss the potential roles of genetic robustness in arboviral evolution and how it may vary from other viruses. Overall, both arthropod and vertebrate hosts influence the resulting genetic composition of arboviruses, but a great deal remains to be investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole R Sexton
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Gregory D Ebel
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
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D'Ascenzo L, Vicens Q, Auffinger P. Identification of receptors for UNCG and GNRA Z-turns and their occurrence in rRNA. Nucleic Acids Res 2019; 46:7989-7997. [PMID: 29986118 PMCID: PMC6125677 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gky578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Accepted: 07/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In contrast to GNRA tetraloop receptors that are common in RNA, receptors for the more thermostable UNCG loops have remained elusive for almost three decades. An analysis of all RNA structures with resolution ≤3.0 Å from the PDB allowed us to identify three previously unnoticed receptors for UNCG and GNRA tetraloops that adopt a common UNCG fold, named ‘Z-turn’ in agreement with our previously published nomenclature. These receptors recognize the solvent accessible second Z-turn nucleotide in different but specific ways. Two receptors participating in a complex network of tertiary interactions are associated with the rRNA UUCG and GAAA Z-turns capping helices H62 and H35a in rRNA large subunits. Structural comparison of fully assembled ribosomes and comparative sequence analysis of >6500 rRNA sequences helped us recognize that these motifs are almost universally conserved in rRNA, where they may contribute to organize the large subunit around the subdomain-IV four-way junction. The third UCCG receptor was identified in a rRNA/protein construct crystallized at acidic pH. These three non-redundant Z-turn receptors are relevant for our understanding of the assembly of rRNA and other long-non-coding RNAs, as well as for the design of novel folding motifs for synthetic biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luigi D'Ascenzo
- Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, Université de Strasbourg, Institut de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire du CNRS, 67084 Strasbourg, France.,Department of Integrative Structural and Computational Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Quentin Vicens
- Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, Université de Strasbourg, Institut de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire du CNRS, 67084 Strasbourg, France.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, RNA Bioscience Initiative, University of Colorado, Denver School of Medicine, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Pascal Auffinger
- Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, Université de Strasbourg, Institut de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire du CNRS, 67084 Strasbourg, France
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Prostova MA, Smertina E, Bakhmutov DV, Gasparyan AA, Khitrina EV, Kolesnikova MS, Shishova AA, Gmyl AP, Agol VI. Characterization of Mutational Tolerance of a Viral RNA-Protein Interaction. Viruses 2019; 11:v11050479. [PMID: 31130655 PMCID: PMC6563195 DOI: 10.3390/v11050479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Revised: 05/20/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Replication of RNA viruses is generally markedly error-prone. Nevertheless, these viruses usually retain their identity under more or less constant conditions due to different mechanisms of mutation tolerance. However, there exists only limited information on quantitative aspects of the mutational tolerance of distinct viral functions. To address this problem, we used here as a model the interaction between a replicative cis-acting RNA element (oriL) of poliovirus and its ligand (viral protein 3CD). The mutational tolerance of a conserved tripeptide of 3CD, directly involved in this interaction, was investigated. Randomization of the relevant codons and reverse genetics were used to define the space of viability-compatible sequences. Surprisingly, at least 11 different amino acid substitutions in this tripeptide were not lethal. Several altered viruses exhibited wild-type-like phenotypes, whereas debilitated (but viable) genomes could increase their fitness by the acquisition of reversions or compensatory mutations. Together with our study on the tolerance of oriL (Prostova et al., 2015), the results demonstrate that at least 42 out of 51 possible nucleotide replacements within the two relevant genomic regions are viability-compatible. These results provide new insights into structural aspects of an important viral function as well as into the general problems of viral mutational robustness and evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria A Prostova
- Institute of Poliomyelitis, M. P. Chumakov Center for Research and Development of Immunobiological Products, Russian Academy of Sciences, 108819 Moscow, Russia.
- Institute of Molecular Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, 123182 Moscow, Russia.
| | - Elena Smertina
- Institute of Poliomyelitis, M. P. Chumakov Center for Research and Development of Immunobiological Products, Russian Academy of Sciences, 108819 Moscow, Russia.
- Faculty of Fundamental Medicine, M. V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, 117192 Moscow, Russia.
| | - Denis V Bakhmutov
- Institute of Poliomyelitis, M. P. Chumakov Center for Research and Development of Immunobiological Products, Russian Academy of Sciences, 108819 Moscow, Russia.
| | - Anna A Gasparyan
- Institute of Poliomyelitis, M. P. Chumakov Center for Research and Development of Immunobiological Products, Russian Academy of Sciences, 108819 Moscow, Russia.
- Faculty of Biology, M. V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia.
| | - Elena V Khitrina
- Institute of Poliomyelitis, M. P. Chumakov Center for Research and Development of Immunobiological Products, Russian Academy of Sciences, 108819 Moscow, Russia.
- A. N. Belozersky Institute of Physical-Chemical Biology, M. V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119899 Moscow, Russia.
| | - Marina S Kolesnikova
- Institute of Poliomyelitis, M. P. Chumakov Center for Research and Development of Immunobiological Products, Russian Academy of Sciences, 108819 Moscow, Russia.
| | - Anna A Shishova
- Institute of Poliomyelitis, M. P. Chumakov Center for Research and Development of Immunobiological Products, Russian Academy of Sciences, 108819 Moscow, Russia.
| | - Anatoly P Gmyl
- Institute of Poliomyelitis, M. P. Chumakov Center for Research and Development of Immunobiological Products, Russian Academy of Sciences, 108819 Moscow, Russia.
- Faculty of Biology, M. V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia.
- Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119991 Moscow, Russia.
| | - Vadim I Agol
- Institute of Poliomyelitis, M. P. Chumakov Center for Research and Development of Immunobiological Products, Russian Academy of Sciences, 108819 Moscow, Russia.
- A. N. Belozersky Institute of Physical-Chemical Biology, M. V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119899 Moscow, Russia.
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Abstract
Reproduction of RNA viruses is typically error-prone due to the infidelity of their replicative machinery and the usual lack of proofreading mechanisms. The error rates may be close to those that kill the virus. Consequently, populations of RNA viruses are represented by heterogeneous sets of genomes with various levels of fitness. This is especially consequential when viruses encounter various bottlenecks and new infections are initiated by a single or few deviating genomes. Nevertheless, RNA viruses are able to maintain their identity by conservation of major functional elements. This conservatism stems from genetic robustness or mutational tolerance, which is largely due to the functional degeneracy of many protein and RNA elements as well as to negative selection. Another relevant mechanism is the capacity to restore fitness after genetic damages, also based on replicative infidelity. Conversely, error-prone replication is a major tool that ensures viral evolvability. The potential for changes in debilitated genomes is much higher in small populations, because in the absence of stronger competitors low-fit genomes have a choice of various trajectories to wander along fitness landscapes. Thus, low-fit populations are inherently unstable, and it may be said that to run ahead it is useful to stumble. In this report, focusing on picornaviruses and also considering data from other RNA viruses, we review the biological relevance and mechanisms of various alterations of viral RNA genomes as well as pathways and mechanisms of rehabilitation after loss of fitness. The relationships among mutational robustness, resilience, and evolvability of viral RNA genomes are discussed.
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Prostova MA, Deviatkin AA, Tcelykh IO, Lukashev AN, Gmyl AP. Independent evolution of tetraloop in enterovirus oriL replicative element and its putative binding partners in virus protein 3C. PeerJ 2017; 5:e3896. [PMID: 29018627 PMCID: PMC5633025 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.3896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2017] [Accepted: 09/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Enteroviruses are small non-enveloped viruses with a (+) ssRNA genome with one open reading frame. Enterovirus protein 3C (or 3CD for some species) binds the replicative element oriL to initiate replication. The replication of enteroviruses features a low-fidelity process, which allows the virus to adapt to the changing environment on the one hand, and requires additional mechanisms to maintain the genome stability on the other. Structural disturbances in the apical region of oriL domain d can be compensated by amino acid substitutions in positions 154 or 156 of 3C (amino acid numeration corresponds to poliovirus 3C), thus suggesting the co-evolution of these interacting sequences in nature. The aim of this work was to understand co-evolution patterns of two interacting replication machinery elements in enteroviruses, the apical region of oriL domain d and its putative binding partners in the 3C protein. Methods To evaluate the variability of the domain d loop sequence we retrieved all available full enterovirus sequences (>6, 400 nucleotides), which were present in the NCBI database on February 2017 and analysed the variety and abundance of sequences in domain d of the replicative element oriL and in the protein 3C. Results A total of 2,842 full genome sequences was analysed. The majority of domain d apical loops were tetraloops, which belonged to consensus YNHG (Y = U/C, N = any nucleotide, H = A/C/U). The putative RNA-binding tripeptide 154–156 (Enterovirus C 3C protein numeration) was less diverse than the apical domain d loop region and, in contrast to it, was species-specific. Discussion Despite the suggestion that the RNA-binding tripeptide interacts with the apical region of domain d, they evolve independently in nature. Together, our data indicate the plastic evolution of both interplayers of 3C-oriL recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria A Prostova
- Chumakov Institute of Poliomyelitis and Viral Encephalitides, Moscow, Russia
| | - Andrei A Deviatkin
- Chumakov Institute of Poliomyelitis and Viral Encephalitides, Moscow, Russia
| | - Irina O Tcelykh
- Chumakov Institute of Poliomyelitis and Viral Encephalitides, Moscow, Russia.,Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexander N Lukashev
- Chumakov Institute of Poliomyelitis and Viral Encephalitides, Moscow, Russia.,Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Anatoly P Gmyl
- Chumakov Institute of Poliomyelitis and Viral Encephalitides, Moscow, Russia.,Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia.,Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
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D'Ascenzo L, Leonarski F, Vicens Q, Auffinger P. Revisiting GNRA and UNCG folds: U-turns versus Z-turns in RNA hairpin loops. RNA 2017; 23:259-269. [PMID: 27999116 PMCID: PMC5311481 DOI: 10.1261/rna.059097.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2016] [Accepted: 11/29/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
When thinking about RNA three-dimensional structures, coming across GNRA and UNCG tetraloops is perceived as a boon since their folds have been extensively described. Nevertheless, analyzing loop conformations within RNA and RNP structures led us to uncover several instances of GNRA and UNCG loops that do not fold as expected. We noticed that when a GNRA does not assume its "natural" fold, it adopts the one we typically associate with a UNCG sequence. The same folding interconversion may occur for loops with UNCG sequences, for instance within tRNA anticodon loops. Hence, we show that some structured tetranucleotide sequences starting with G or U can adopt either of these folds. The underlying structural basis that defines these two fold types is the mutually exclusive stacking of a backbone oxygen on either the first (in GNRA) or the last nucleobase (in UNCG), generating an oxygen-π contact. We thereby propose to refrain from using sequences to distinguish between loop conformations. Instead, we suggest using descriptors such as U-turn (for "GNRA-type" folds) and a newly described Z-turn (for "UNCG-type" folds). Because tetraloops adopt for the largest part only two (inter)convertible turns, we are better able to interpret from a structural perspective loop interchangeability occurring in ribosomes and viral RNA. In this respect, we propose a general view on the inclination for a given sequence to adopt (or not) a specific fold. We also suggest how long-noncoding RNAs may adopt discrete but transient structures, which are therefore hard to predict.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luigi D'Ascenzo
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, UPR 9002, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Filip Leonarski
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, UPR 9002, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Quentin Vicens
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, UPR 9002, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Pascal Auffinger
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Architecture et Réactivité de l'ARN, UPR 9002, F-67000 Strasbourg, France
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