Detection and mapping of mismatched base pairs in DNA molecules by atomic force microscopy

A simple and optimized length estimator for digitized DNA contours

The determination of the contour length of DNA imaged by either electron microscopy or atomic force microscopy is frequently required for investigating the physical properties of nucleic acids. Nevertheless, these measurements are often carried out with methods that are not optimized for the curvilinear shape of DNA or are too complex to be of practical use. The aim of this study is to provide a method for the contour length measurements of DNA that is accurate, practical, and computationally simple. Computer simulated DNA fragments were used as experimental benchmarks in order to compute the coefficients a and b of the (n(e), n(o))-characterization [L(n(e),n(o)) = an(e) + bn(o)] so as to minimize the error of the measurements. The data show that, at variance with straight lines, a DNA length estimator depends on both the DNA flexibility and the image resolution, but it is independent of the DNA contour length. A table with DNA estimators to be used for length measurements of digitized contours obtained under commonly used imaging conditions is provided. Although the method has been developed using DNA as a benchmark, its applicability can be extended to other polymers as well as to other imaging techniques.

Quantitative analysis of EcoR1 methylase-DNA complex by atomic force microscopy

The EcoR1 methylase specifically recognize 5'-GA* ATTC-3' in DNA duplex. We directly applied atomic force microscopy (AFM) to investigate linear pBR322-EcoR1 methylase complexes and quantitatively analyzed the bend angles of linear pBR322-EcoR1 methylase complexes and the bound protein widths. In this study, we made a novel observation that DNA-EcoR1 methylase complexes exhibited two populations of conformation at recognition site: DNA bent an acute angle at the recognition site in the presence of one EcoR1 methylase monomeric molecule, while DNA bent an unacute angle at the recognition site and the complementary site on duplex DNAs in the presence of EcoR1 methylase dimer. The data indicated that the unacute angle state was the result of unique interactions between EcoR1 methylase and the recognition site and the complementary site on duplex DNAs, and suggested that the acute angle conformation could be an intermediate in the formation of the unacute angle state. Our works provide a detail insight into the DNA structural variations involved in EcoR1 methylase-binding processes and demonstrate further the versatility of AFM as an imaging technique for studying the interaction between large DNA fragment and protein.

Construction and characterization of different MutS fusion proteins as recognition elements of DNA chip for detection of DNA mutations

Three MutS fusion systems were designed as the mutation recognition and signal elements of DNA chips for detection of DNA mutations. The expression vectors containing the encoding sequences of three recombinant proteins, Trx-His6-GFP-(Ser-Gly)6-MutS (THGLM), Trx-His6-(Ser-Gly)6-Strep tagII-(Ser-Gly)6-MutS (THLSLM) and Trx-His6-(Ser-Gly)6-MutS (THLM), were constructed by gene slicing in vitro. THGLM, THLSLM and THLM were then expressed in Escherichia coli AD494(DE3), respectively. SDS-PAGE analysis revealed that each of the expected proteins was approximately 30% of the total bacterial proteins. The recombinant proteins were purified to the purity over 90% by immobilized metal (Co2+) chelation affinity chromatography. Bioactivity assay indicated that three fusion proteins retained the mismatch-binding activity and the functions of other fusion partners. DNA chips arrayed both mismatched and unpaired DNA oligonucleotides as well as rpoB gene from Mycobacterium tuberculosis were prepared. THGLM, THLSLM and THLM that was labeled with Fluorolinktrade mark Cy3 reactive dye, were then used as both mutation recognition and labeling elements of DNA chips. The resulting DNA chips were used to detect the mismatched and unpaired mutations in the synthesized oligonucleotides and single base mutation in rpoB gene of M. tuberculosis that is resistant to rifamycin.

Atomic force microscopy study of the structural effects induced by echinomycin binding to DNA

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) has been used to examine the conformational effects of echinomycin, a DNA bis-intercalating antibiotic, on linear and circular DNA. Four different 398 bp DNA fragments were synthesized, comprising a combination of normal and/or modified bases including 2,6-diaminopurine and inosine (which are the corresponding analogues of adenine and guanosine in which the 2-amino group that is crucial for echinomycin binding has been added or removed, respectively). Analysis of AFM images provided contour lengths, which were used as a direct measure of bis-intercalation. About 66 echinomycin molecules are able to bind to each fragment, corresponding to a site size of six base-pairs. The presence of base-modified nucleotides affects DNA conformation, as determined by the helical rise per base-pair. At the same time, the values obtained for the dissociation constant correlate with the types of preferred binding site available among the different DNA fragments; echinomycin binds to TpD sites much more tightly than to CpG sites. The structural perturbations induced when echinomycin binds to closed circular duplex pBR322 DNA were also investigated and a method for quantification of the structural changes is presented. In the presence of increasing echinomycin concentration, the plasmid can be seen to proceed through a series of transitions in which its supercoiling decreases, relaxes, and then increases.

An overview of the biophysical applications of atomic force microscopy

The potentialities of the atomic force microscopy (AFM) make it a tool of undeniable value for the study of biologically relevant samples. AFM is progressively becoming a usual benchtop technique. In average, more than one paper is published every day on AFM biological applications. This figure overcomes materials science applications, showing that 17 years after its invention, AFM has completely crossed the limits of its traditional areas of application. Its potential to image the structure of biomolecules or bio-surfaces with molecular or even sub-molecular resolution, study samples under physiological conditions (which allows to follow in situ the real time dynamics of some biological events), measure local chemical, physical and mechanical properties of a sample and manipulate single molecules should be emphasized.

BioMEMS using electrophoresis for the analysis of genetic mutations

Biomedical microelectromechanical systems (BioMEMS) are rapidly emerging in many areas of genetic analysis. These devices demonstrate potential for rapid analysis using modular components capable of sample purification, amplification, mutation discrimination and detection on small, portable point-of-care instruments. Here, various approaches to genetic mutation detection and the modern analysis platform, capillary electrophoresis, will be briefly reviewed. Microfluidic devices will be discussed in relation to fabrication techniques, mutation detection using simple electrophoretic separations, multiplexed designs and modular functionalities, as well as challenges and issues surrounding this technology.

Method for orienting DNA molecules on mica surfaces in one direction for atomic force microscopy imaging

An efficient method was developed to stretch DNA molecules on an atomically flat surface for AFM imaging. This method involves anchoring DNA molecules from their 5' ends to amino silanized mica surfaces. N-Succinimidyl6-[3'-(2-pyridyldithio) propionamido]hexanoate (LC-SPDP), a heterobifunctional cross-linker with a flexible spacer arm was used for this purpose. Immobilization was carried out by introducing a thiol group to the 5' end of DNA by PCR. Thiolated molecules were then reacted with the cross linker to conjugate with its 2-pyridyl disulphide group via sulfhydryl exchange. The resulting complex was deposited on amino silanized mica where NHS-ester moiety of the cross linker reacted with the primary amino group on the surface. Samples were washed by a current of water and dried by an air jet in one direction parallel to the surface. DNA molecules were fully stretched in one direction on imaging them by AFM.