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Glitscher M, Hildt E, Bender D. [Hepatitis B and C: mechanisms of virus-induced liver pathogenesis and tumorigenesis]. Bundesgesundheitsblatt Gesundheitsforschung Gesundheitsschutz 2022; 65:228-237. [PMID: 35015106 PMCID: PMC8813796 DOI: 10.1007/s00103-021-03482-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Worldwide, the hepatitis B and hepatitis C viruses (HBV, HCV) are the most relevant causative viral agents of a chronic hepatitis (inflammation of the liver). At present, more than 250 million people suffer from a chronic HBV infection globally, resulting in 0.8 million deaths per year. A chronic HCV infection accounts for about 70 million cases worldwide, leading to a death toll of about 1 million per year. An approved vaccine is only available against an HBV infection. Both HBV and HCV infections result in a highly increased risk of developing liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and a hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).This review aims to describe mechanisms of the HBV- and HCV-associated pathogenesis. The focus is on the interplay between a chronic infection with intracellular signaling transduction, metabolic pathways with an emphasis on lipid metabolism, the establishment of liver fibrosis and cirrhosis during a chronic infection, and the mechanisms of the onset of a virally induced HCC.Despite there being great advances in the characterization of viral life cycles and the development of robust antiviral strategies, significant hurdles persist: gaining a better understanding of the mechanisms that drive virus-associated pathogenesis as well as increasing insights regarding different viral genotypes having impacts on alternate pathogeneses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirco Glitscher
- Abteilung 2/01, Virologie, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut - Bundesinstitut für Impfstoffe und biomedizinische Arzneimittel, Paul-Ehrlich-Str. 51-59, 63226, Langen, Deutschland
| | - Eberhard Hildt
- Abteilung 2/01, Virologie, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut - Bundesinstitut für Impfstoffe und biomedizinische Arzneimittel, Paul-Ehrlich-Str. 51-59, 63226, Langen, Deutschland.
| | - Daniela Bender
- Abteilung 2/01, Virologie, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut - Bundesinstitut für Impfstoffe und biomedizinische Arzneimittel, Paul-Ehrlich-Str. 51-59, 63226, Langen, Deutschland
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Butterworth J, Gregoire D, Peter M, Roca Suarez AA, Desandré G, Simonin Y, Virzì A, Zine El Aabidine A, Guivarch M, Andrau JC, Bertrand E, Assenat E, Lupberger J, Hibner U. GOLT1B Activation in Hepatitis C Virus-Infected Hepatocytes Links ER Trafficking and Viral Replication. Pathogens 2021; 11:pathogens11010046. [PMID: 35055994 PMCID: PMC8781247 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11010046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Revised: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic hepatitis C carries a high risk of development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), triggered by both direct and indirect effects of the virus. We examined cell-autonomous alterations in gene expression profiles associated with hepatitis C viral presence. Highly sensitive single molecule fluorescent in situ hybridization applied to frozen tissue sections of a hepatitis C patient allowed the delineation of clusters of infected hepatocytes. Laser microdissection followed by RNAseq analysis of hepatitis C virus (HCV)-positive and -negative regions from the tumoral and non-tumoral tissues from the same patient revealed HCV-related deregulation of expression of genes in the tumor and in the non-tumoral tissue. However, there was little overlap between both gene sets. Our interest in alterations that increase the probability of tumorigenesis prompted the examination of genes whose expression was increased by the virus in the non-transformed cells and whose level remained high in the tumor. This strategy led to the identification of a novel HCV target gene: GOLT1B, which encodes a protein involved in ER-Golgi trafficking. We further show that GOLT1B expression is induced during the unfolded protein response, that its presence is essential for efficient viral replication, and that its expression is correlated with poor outcome in HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline Butterworth
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34293 Montpellier, France; (J.B.); (M.P.); (G.D.); (Y.S.); (A.Z.E.A.); (J.-C.A.); (E.B.); (E.A.)
| | - Damien Gregoire
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34293 Montpellier, France; (J.B.); (M.P.); (G.D.); (Y.S.); (A.Z.E.A.); (J.-C.A.); (E.B.); (E.A.)
- Correspondence: (D.G.); (U.H.)
| | - Marion Peter
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34293 Montpellier, France; (J.B.); (M.P.); (G.D.); (Y.S.); (A.Z.E.A.); (J.-C.A.); (E.B.); (E.A.)
| | - Armando Andres Roca Suarez
- Inserm, U1110, Institut de Recherche sur les Maladies Virales et Hépatiques, 67000 Strasbourg, France; (A.A.R.S.); (A.V.); (M.G.); (J.L.)
- Université de Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Guillaume Desandré
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34293 Montpellier, France; (J.B.); (M.P.); (G.D.); (Y.S.); (A.Z.E.A.); (J.-C.A.); (E.B.); (E.A.)
| | - Yannick Simonin
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34293 Montpellier, France; (J.B.); (M.P.); (G.D.); (Y.S.); (A.Z.E.A.); (J.-C.A.); (E.B.); (E.A.)
| | - Alessia Virzì
- Inserm, U1110, Institut de Recherche sur les Maladies Virales et Hépatiques, 67000 Strasbourg, France; (A.A.R.S.); (A.V.); (M.G.); (J.L.)
- Université de Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Amal Zine El Aabidine
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34293 Montpellier, France; (J.B.); (M.P.); (G.D.); (Y.S.); (A.Z.E.A.); (J.-C.A.); (E.B.); (E.A.)
| | - Marine Guivarch
- Inserm, U1110, Institut de Recherche sur les Maladies Virales et Hépatiques, 67000 Strasbourg, France; (A.A.R.S.); (A.V.); (M.G.); (J.L.)
- Université de Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Jean-Christophe Andrau
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34293 Montpellier, France; (J.B.); (M.P.); (G.D.); (Y.S.); (A.Z.E.A.); (J.-C.A.); (E.B.); (E.A.)
| | - Edouard Bertrand
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34293 Montpellier, France; (J.B.); (M.P.); (G.D.); (Y.S.); (A.Z.E.A.); (J.-C.A.); (E.B.); (E.A.)
| | - Eric Assenat
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34293 Montpellier, France; (J.B.); (M.P.); (G.D.); (Y.S.); (A.Z.E.A.); (J.-C.A.); (E.B.); (E.A.)
- Department of Hepatogastroenterology, Hepatology and Liver Transplantation Unit, Saint Eloi Hospital, University of Montpellier, 34000 Montpellier, France
| | - Joachim Lupberger
- Inserm, U1110, Institut de Recherche sur les Maladies Virales et Hépatiques, 67000 Strasbourg, France; (A.A.R.S.); (A.V.); (M.G.); (J.L.)
- Université de Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Urszula Hibner
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, 34293 Montpellier, France; (J.B.); (M.P.); (G.D.); (Y.S.); (A.Z.E.A.); (J.-C.A.); (E.B.); (E.A.)
- Correspondence: (D.G.); (U.H.)
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Sepulveda-Crespo D, Resino S, Martinez I. Strategies Targeting the Innate Immune Response for the Treatment of Hepatitis C Virus-Associated Liver Fibrosis. Drugs 2021; 81:419-443. [PMID: 33400242 DOI: 10.1007/s40265-020-01458-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Direct-acting antivirals eliminate hepatitis C virus (HCV) in more than 95% of treated individuals and may abolish liver injury, arrest fibrogenesis, and reverse fibrosis and cirrhosis. However, liver regeneration is usually a slow process that is less effective in the late stages of fibrosis. What is more, fibrogenesis may prevail in patients with advanced cirrhosis, where it can progress to liver failure and hepatocellular carcinoma. Therefore, the development of antifibrotic drugs that halt and reverse fibrosis progression is urgently needed. Fibrosis occurs due to the repair process of damaged hepatic tissue, which eventually leads to scarring. The innate immune response against HCV is essential in the initiation and progression of liver fibrosis. HCV-infected hepatocytes and liver macrophages secrete proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines that promote the activation and differentiation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) to myofibroblasts that produce extracellular matrix (ECM) components. Prolonged ECM production by myofibroblasts due to chronic inflammation is essential to the development of fibrosis. While no antifibrotic therapy is approved to date, several drugs are being tested in phase 2 and phase 3 trials with promising results. This review discusses current state-of-the-art knowledge on treatments targeting the innate immune system to revert chronic hepatitis C-associated liver fibrosis. Agents that cause liver damage may vary (alcohol, virus infection, etc.), but fibrosis progression shows common patterns among them, including chronic inflammation and immune dysregulation, hepatocyte injury, HSC activation, and excessive ECM deposition. Therefore, mechanisms underlying these processes are promising targets for general antifibrotic therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Sepulveda-Crespo
- Unidad de Infección Viral e Inmunidad, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (Campus Majadahonda), Carretera Majadahonda-Pozuelo, Km 2.2, 28220, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - Salvador Resino
- Unidad de Infección Viral e Inmunidad, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (Campus Majadahonda), Carretera Majadahonda-Pozuelo, Km 2.2, 28220, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Isidoro Martinez
- Unidad de Infección Viral e Inmunidad, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (Campus Majadahonda), Carretera Majadahonda-Pozuelo, Km 2.2, 28220, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain.
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Gerresheim GK, Hess CS, Shalamova LA, Fricke M, Marz M, Andreev DE, Shatsky IN, Niepmann M. Ribosome Pausing at Inefficient Codons at the End of the Replicase Coding Region Is Important for Hepatitis C Virus Genome Replication. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E6955. [PMID: 32971876 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21186955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Revised: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infects liver cells and often causes chronic infection, also leading to liver cirrhosis and cancer. In the cytoplasm, the viral structural and non-structural (NS) proteins are directly translated from the plus strand HCV RNA genome. The viral proteins NS3 to NS5B proteins constitute the replication complex that is required for RNA genome replication via a minus strand antigenome. The most C-terminal protein in the genome is the NS5B replicase, which needs to initiate antigenome RNA synthesis at the very 3′-end of the plus strand. Using ribosome profiling of cells replicating full-length infectious HCV genomes, we uncovered that ribosomes accumulate at the HCV stop codon and about 30 nucleotides upstream of it. This pausing is due to the presence of conserved rare, inefficient Wobble codons upstream of the termination site. Synonymous substitution of these inefficient codons to efficient codons has negative consequences for viral RNA replication but not for viral protein synthesis. This pausing may allow the enzymatically active replicase core to find its genuine RNA template in cis, while the protein is still held in place by being stuck with its C-terminus in the exit tunnel of the paused ribosome.
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Awan FM, Yang BB, Naz A, Hanif A, Ikram A, Obaid A, Malik A, Janjua HA, Ali A, Sharif S. The emerging role and significance of circular RNAs in viral infections and antiviral immune responses: possible implication as theranostic agents. RNA Biol 2020; 18:1-15. [PMID: 32615049 DOI: 10.1080/15476286.2020.1790198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are ubiquitously expressed, covalently closed rings, produced by pre-mRNA splicing in a reversed order during post-transcriptional processing. Circularity endows 3'-5'-linked circRNAs with stability and resistance to exonucleolytic degradation which raises the question whether circRNAs may be relevant as potential therapeutic targets or agents. High stability in biological systems is the most remarkable property and a major criterion for why circRNAs could be exploited for a range of RNA-centred medical applications. Even though various biological roles and regulatory functions of circRNAs have been reported, their in-depth study is challenging because of their circular structure and sequence-overlap with linear mRNA counterparts. Moreover, little is known about their role in viral infections and in antiviral immune responses. We believe that an in-depth and detailed understanding of circRNA mediated viral protein regulations will increase our knowledge of the biology of these novel molecules. In this review, we aimed to provide a comprehensive basis and overview on the biogenesis, significance and regulatory roles of circRNAs in the context of antiviral immune responses and viral infections including hepatitis C virus infection, hepatitis B virus infection, hepatitis delta virus infection, influenza A virus infection, Epstein-Barr virus infection, kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus infection, human cytomegalovirus infection, herpes simplex virus infection, human immunodeficiency virus infection, porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus infection, ORF virus infection, avian leukosis virus infection, simian vacuolating virus 40 infection, transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus infection, and bovine viral diarrhoea virus infection. We have also discussed the critical regulatory role of circRNAs in provoking antiviral immunity, providing evidence for implications as therapeutic agents and as diagnostic markers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faryal Mehwish Awan
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology (IMBB), the University of Lahore (UOL) , Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Burton B Yang
- Sunnybrook Research Institute, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre , Toronto, Canada.,Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto , Toronto, Canada.,Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Toronto , Toronto, Canada
| | - Anam Naz
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology (IMBB), the University of Lahore (UOL) , Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Aneeqa Hanif
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology (IMBB), the University of Lahore (UOL) , Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Aqsa Ikram
- Atta-ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences (ASAB), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST) , Pakistan
| | - Ayesha Obaid
- Atta-ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences (ASAB), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST) , Pakistan
| | - Arif Malik
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology (IMBB), the University of Lahore (UOL) , Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Hussnain Ahmed Janjua
- Atta-ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences (ASAB), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST) , Pakistan
| | - Amjad Ali
- Atta-ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences (ASAB), National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST) , Pakistan
| | - Sumaira Sharif
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology (IMBB), the University of Lahore (UOL) , Lahore, Pakistan
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Abstract
Translation of the hepatitis C virus (HCV) RNA genome is regulated by the internal ribosome entry site (IRES), located in the 5’-untranslated region (5′UTR) and part of the core protein coding sequence, and by the 3′UTR. The 5′UTR has some highly conserved structural regions, while others can assume different conformations. The IRES can bind to the ribosomal 40S subunit with high affinity without any other factors. Nevertheless, IRES activity is modulated by additional cis sequences in the viral genome, including the 3′UTR and the cis-acting replication element (CRE). Canonical translation initiation factors (eIFs) are involved in HCV translation initiation, including eIF3, eIF2, eIF1A, eIF5, and eIF5B. Alternatively, under stress conditions and limited eIF2-Met-tRNAiMet availability, alternative initiation factors such as eIF2D, eIF2A, and eIF5B can substitute for eIF2 to allow HCV translation even when cellular mRNA translation is downregulated. In addition, several IRES trans-acting factors (ITAFs) modulate IRES activity by building large networks of RNA-protein and protein–protein interactions, also connecting 5′- and 3′-ends of the viral RNA. Moreover, some ITAFs can act as RNA chaperones that help to position the viral AUG start codon in the ribosomal 40S subunit entry channel. Finally, the liver-specific microRNA-122 (miR-122) stimulates HCV IRES-dependent translation, most likely by stabilizing a certain structure of the IRES that is required for initiation.
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Gerresheim GK, Roeb E, Michel AM, Niepmann M. Hepatitis C Virus Downregulates Core Subunits of Oxidative Phosphorylation, Reminiscent of the Warburg Effect in Cancer Cells. Cells 2019; 8:E1410. [PMID: 31717433 DOI: 10.3390/cells8111410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Revised: 11/05/2019] [Accepted: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) mainly infects liver hepatocytes and replicates its single-stranded plus strand RNA genome exclusively in the cytoplasm. Viral proteins and RNA interfere with the host cell immune response, allowing the virus to continue replication. Therefore, in about 70% of cases, the viral infection cannot be cleared by the immune system, but a chronic infection is established, often resulting in liver fibrosis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Induction of cancer in the host cells can be regarded to provide further advantages for ongoing virus replication. One adaptation in cancer cells is the enhancement of cellular carbohydrate flux in glycolysis with a reduction of the activity of the citric acid cycle and aerobic oxidative phosphorylation. To this end, HCV downregulates the expression of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation complex core subunits quite early after infection. This so-called aerobic glycolysis is known as the “Warburg Effect” and serves to provide more anabolic metabolites upstream of the citric acid cycle, such as amino acids, pentoses and NADPH for cancer cell growth. In addition, HCV deregulates signaling pathways like those of TNF-β and MAPK by direct and indirect mechanisms, which can lead to fibrosis and HCC.
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