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Olivieri M, Ludovico E, Battisti A. Occupational Exposure of Forest Workers to the Urticating Setae of the Pine Processionary Moth Thaumetopoea pityocampa. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2023; 20:4735. [PMID: 36981645 PMCID: PMC10049294 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20064735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2023] [Revised: 03/05/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The larvae of the pine processionary moth are a threat to public health because they produce detachable setae that are about 200 µm long and 6 µm wide, reaching a total number of up to 1 million per mature individual. The setae are intended to be released to protect the larvae from predators but become a public health issue when in contact with humans and warm-blooded animals. Symptoms associated with the setae are typically urticaria and local swelling erythema, although edema of the skin, conjunctivitis or respiratory mucosa may occur. Occupational exposure concerns mainly forest workers but also farmers and gardeners. In the present study, we quantify the exposure to the setae of forest workers in a district of Northern Italy. The pine processionary moth represents a real case of occupational exposure as the urticating setae produced by the larvae caused symptoms in most forest workers directly in contact with the infested trees. In addition, the urticating setae were detected on the body of the chainsaw operators and in the surroundings of the felled trees during the operations. The non-exposed workers of the same agency did not report symptoms, with only one exception, likely linked to a non-occupational exposure. As the risk is not immediately perceived by the workers because direct contact with the larvae is unlikely, a campaign of information to workers and the general population living nearby infested forestry areas about the risk associated with airborne exposure is recommended. This becomes especially important in the areas of recent expansion of the insect, where people are inexperienced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Olivieri
- Unit of Occupational Medicine, Department of Diagnostics and Public Health, University of Verona, 37129 Verona, Italy
| | - Enzo Ludovico
- Unit of Occupational Medicine, Department of Diagnostics and Public Health, University of Verona, 37129 Verona, Italy
| | - Andrea Battisti
- Department DAFNAE, University of Padova, Legnaro, 35122 Padova, Italy
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2
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Dong B, Wang Y, Li Q, Chen Z. Fleshy scoli removed without detriment: structure and potential anti-predation function in a slug caterpillar (Limacodidae). BEHAVIOUR 2021. [DOI: 10.1163/1568539x-bja10112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Anti-predator outgrowths are found prevalent in animals such as stinging spines of caterpillars. However, an encounter with a predator is usually fatal as caterpillars would die easily even if just small body parts were taken. Here, we showed the larvae of Phrixolepia sp. did not get injured when the fleshy but not urticating scoli were removed. By showing the morphologic traits, we assume these particular scoli function as enlarged warning signals and substitute to be attacked so that caterpillars can warn multiple predators, with a lower chance of getting injured when encountering natural enemies, such as birds and carabid beetles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Dong
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, Yunnan, P.R. China
- Centre for Plant Ecology, Core Botanical Gardens, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, Yunnan, P.R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Yirong Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, Yunnan, P.R. China
| | - Qin Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, Yunnan, P.R. China
| | - Zhanqi Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, Yunnan, P.R. China
- Centre for Plant Ecology, Core Botanical Gardens, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, Yunnan, P.R. China
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3
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Perkins LE, Cribb BW, Pagendam DE, Zalucki MP. Variation in Morphology and Airborne Dispersal of the Urticating Apparatus of Ochrogaster lunifer (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae), an Australian Processionary Caterpillar, and Implications for Livestock and Humans. J Insect Sci 2019; 19:5634379. [PMID: 31782508 PMCID: PMC6883397 DOI: 10.1093/jisesa/iez112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
True setae borne on the abdominal tergites of Ochrogaster lunifer Herrich-Schӓffer caterpillars are the agents of an irritating contact dermatitis, osteomyelitis, ophthalmia, and severe allergic reactions in humans, and are the cause of Equine Amnionitis and Fetal Loss in Australia. The setae are detached and readily dislodge from the integument whereby they disperse throughout the environment. To better understand the true setae of O. lunifer as agents of medical and veterinary concern, we studied their characteristics and distance dispersed. Whereas members of the European Thaumetopoeinae have been widely studied, their southern-hemisphere counterparts such as O. lunifer are not well known despite their harmfulness and known medical and veterinary importance. The caterpillar's investment in true setae increased with age and size, and two distinct size classes co-occurred in setae fields. A previously undescribed morphological type of true seta was found on the first abdominal segment. All true setae were calculated to travel long distances in the air even under light breeze conditions. Our results show there is a high risk of exposure to airborne urticating setae within 100 m of elevated caterpillar activity, and a likely risk of exposure for some kilometers in the direction of the prevailing breeze. This information should be used to inform management strategies in areas where urticating processionary caterpillars are active, and especially during periods of an outbreak.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynda E Perkins
- School of Biological Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Bronwen W Cribb
- School of Biological Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Centre for Microscopy & Microanalysis, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | | | - Myron P Zalucki
- School of Biological Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- Corresponding author, e-mail:
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4
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Lin Y, Lin R, Braby MF, Hsu Y. Evolution and losses of spines in slug caterpillars (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae). Ecol Evol 2019; 9:9827-9840. [PMID: 31534697 PMCID: PMC6745677 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.5524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Revised: 07/14/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Larvae of the cosmopolitan family Limacodidae, commonly known as "slug" caterpillars, are well known because of the widespread occurrence of spines with urticating properties, a morpho-chemical adaptive trait that has been demonstrated to protect the larvae from natural enemies. However, while most species are armed with rows of spines ("nettle" caterpillars), slug caterpillars are morphologically diverse with some species lacking spines and thus are nonstinging. It has been demonstrated that the evolution of spines in slug caterpillars may have a single origin and that this trait is possibly derived from nonstinging slug caterpillars, but these conclusions were based on limited sampling of mainly New World taxa; thus, the evolution of spines and other traits within the family remains unresolved. Here, we analyze morphological variation in slug caterpillars within an evolutionary framework to determine character evolution of spines with samples from Asia, Australia, North America, and South America. The phylogeny of the Limacodidae was reconstructed based on a multigene dataset comprising five molecular markers (5.6 Kbp: COI, 28S, 18S, EF-1α, and wingless) representing 45 species from 40 genera and eight outgroups. Based on this phylogeny, we infer that limacodids evolved from a common ancestor in which the larval type possessed spines, and then slug caterpillars without spines evolved independently multiple times in different continents. While larvae with spines are well adapted to avoiding generalist predators, our results imply that larvae without spines may be suited to different ecological niches. Systematic relationships of our dataset indicate six major lineages, several of which have not previously been identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu‐Chi Lin
- Department of Life ScienceNational Taiwan Normal UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Rung‐Juen Lin
- Department of Life ScienceNational Taiwan Normal UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
| | - Michael F. Braby
- Division of Ecology and EvolutionResearch School of BiologyThe Australian National UniversityActonACTAustralia
- The Australian National Insect CollectionNational Research Collections AustraliaCanberraACTAustralia
| | - Yu‐Feng Hsu
- Department of Life ScienceNational Taiwan Normal UniversityTaipeiTaiwan
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Villas-Boas IM, Bonfá G, Tambourgi DV. Venomous caterpillars: From inoculation apparatus to venom composition and envenomation. Toxicon 2018; 153:39-52. [PMID: 30145232 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2018] [Revised: 07/27/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Envenomation by the larval or pupal stages of moths occurs when the victim presses their hairs. They penetrate the subcutaneous tissue, releasing toxins such as proteolytic enzymes, histamine and other pro-inflammatory substances. Cutaneous reactions, including severe pain, oedema and erythema are frequent local manifestations of caterpillar envenomation, but, in some cases, the reactions can evolve into vesicles, bullae, erosions, petechiae, superficial skin necrosis and ulcerations. Alternatively, some individual can develop allergic reactions, renal failure, osteochondritis, deformity and immobilization of the affected joints and intracerebral bleeding. Caterpillars produce venom to protect themselves from predators; contact with humans is accidental and deserves close attention. Their venoms have not been well studied, except for toxins from some few species. The present review brings together data on venomous caterpillars of moths, primarily addressing the available literature on diversity among the different families that cause accident in humans, the structures used in their defense, venom composition and clinical aspects of the envenomations. Understanding the molecular mechanisms of action of caterpillars' toxins may lead to the development of more adequate treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isadora Maria Villas-Boas
- Immunochemistry Laboratory, Butantan Institute, Av. Vital Brazil, 1500, 05503-900, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Giuliano Bonfá
- Immunochemistry Laboratory, Butantan Institute, Av. Vital Brazil, 1500, 05503-900, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Denise V Tambourgi
- Immunochemistry Laboratory, Butantan Institute, Av. Vital Brazil, 1500, 05503-900, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
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Berardi L, Pivato M, Arrigoni G, Mitali E, Trentin AR, Olivieri M, Kerdelhué C, Dorkeld F, Nidelet S, Dubois E, Battisti A, Masi A. Proteome Analysis of Urticating Setae From Thaumetopoea pityocampa (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae). J Med Entomol 2017; 54:1560-1566. [PMID: 28981804 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjx144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Thaumetopoea pityocampa (Denis & Schiffermüller) (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae) is harmful to conifer trees because of defoliation and to public health because of the release of urticating setae from the caterpillars. Contact with setae by humans and domestic animals induces dermatitis, usually localized to the exposed areas. Recent studies demonstrated the presence of a complex urticating mechanism where proteins present in the setae may play a role as activators of immune responses. Yet, limited information is available at present about the proteins occurring in the setae of T. pityocampa. Using a refined method for protein extraction from the setae, and a combination of liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), de novo assembly of transcriptomic data, and sequence similarity searches, an extensive data set of 353 proteins was obtained. These were further categorized by molecular function, biological process, and cellular location. All the 353 proteins identified were found to match through BLAST search with at least one Lepidoptera sequence available in databases. We found the previously known allergens Tha p 1 and Tha p 2 described from T. pityocampa, as well as enzymes involved in chitin biosynthesis, one of the principal components of the setae, and serine proteases that were responsible for inflammatory and allergic reactions in other urticating Lepidoptera. This new proteomic database may allow for a better understanding of the complexity of allergenic reactions due to T. pityocampa and to other Lepidoptera sharing similar defense systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Berardi
- Department of Agronomy Food Natural Resources Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, Viale dell'Universita 16, 35020 Legnaro, Padova, Italy
| | - M Pivato
- Department of Agronomy Food Natural Resources Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, Viale dell'Universita 16, 35020 Legnaro, Padova, Italy
| | - G Arrigoni
- Proteomics Center, University of Padova and Azienda Ospedaliera di Padova, via G. Orus 2/B, 35129 Padova, Padova, Italy
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, via U. Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - E Mitali
- Department of Agronomy Food Natural Resources Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, Viale dell'Universita 16, 35020 Legnaro, Padova, Italy
| | - A R Trentin
- Department of Agronomy Food Natural Resources Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, Viale dell'Universita 16, 35020 Legnaro, Padova, Italy
| | - M Olivieri
- Occupational Medicine, University Hospital of Verona, Piazzale L.A. Scuro 10, 37134 Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - C Kerdelhué
- INRA, UMR CBGP (INRA/CIRAD/IRD/Montpellier Supagro), 755 avenue du Campus Agropolis, CS30016, F-34988 Montferrier-sur-Lez Cedex, Montferrier-sur-Lez, France
| | - F Dorkeld
- INRA, UMR CBGP (INRA/CIRAD/IRD/Montpellier Supagro), 755 avenue du Campus Agropolis, CS30016, F-34988 Montferrier-sur-Lez Cedex, Montferrier-sur-Lez, France
| | - S Nidelet
- INRA, UMR CBGP (INRA/CIRAD/IRD/Montpellier Supagro), 755 avenue du Campus Agropolis, CS30016, F-34988 Montferrier-sur-Lez Cedex, Montferrier-sur-Lez, France
- MGX-Montpellier GenomiX, Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, 141 rue de la cardonille, 34094 Montpellier Cedex 05, Montpellier, France
| | - E Dubois
- MGX-Montpellier GenomiX, Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, 141 rue de la cardonille, 34094 Montpellier Cedex 05, Montpellier, France
| | - A Battisti
- Department of Agronomy Food Natural Resources Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, Viale dell'Universita 16, 35020 Legnaro, Padova, Italy
| | - A Masi
- Department of Agronomy Food Natural Resources Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, Viale dell'Universita 16, 35020 Legnaro, Padova, Italy
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Abstract
Processionary moths carry urticating setae, which cause health problems in humans and other warm-blooded animals. The pine processionary moth Thaumetopoea pityocampa has responded to global change (climate warming and increased global trade) by extending its distribution range. The subfamily Thaumetopoeinae consists of approximately 100 species. An important question is whether other processionary moth species will similarly respond to these specific dimensions of global change and thus introduce health hazards into new areas. We describe, for the first time, how setae are distributed on different life stages (adult, larva) of major groups within the subfamily. Using the available data, we conclude that there is little evidence that processionary moths as a group will behave like T. pityocampa and expand their distributional range. The health problems caused by setae strongly relate to population density, which may, or may not, be connected to global change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Battisti
- Department DAFNAE, University of Padova, Legnaro I-35020, Italy;
| | - Stig Larsson
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala S-75007, Sweden;
| | - Alain Roques
- Forest Zoology, UR INRA 0633, Orléans F-45075, France;
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8
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Perkins LE, Zalucki MP, Perkins NR, Cawdell-Smith AJ, Todhunter KH, Bryden WL, Cribb BW. The urticating setae of Ochrogaster lunifer, an Australian processionary caterpillar of veterinary importance. Med Vet Entomol 2016; 30:241-5. [PMID: 26669823 DOI: 10.1111/mve.12156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2015] [Revised: 08/28/2015] [Accepted: 09/01/2015] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The bag-shelter moth, Ochrogaster lunifer Herrich-Schaffer (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae), is associated with a condition called equine amnionitis and fetal loss (EAFL) on horse farms in Australia. Setal fragments from O. lunifer larvae have been identified in the placentas of experimentally aborted fetuses and their dams, and in clinical abortions. The gregarious larvae build silken nests in which large numbers cohabit over spring, summer and autumn. The final instars disperse to pupation sites in the ground where they overwinter. Field-collected O. lunifer larvae, their nests and nearby soil were examined using light and electron microscopy to identify setae likely to cause EAFL and to determine where and how many were present. Microtrichia, barbed hairs and true setae were found on the exoskeletons of the larvae. True setae matching the majority of setal fragments described from equine tissue were found on third to eighth instar larvae or exuviae. The number of true setae increased with the age of the larva; eighth instars carried around 2.0-2.5 million true setae. The exuvia of the pre-pupal instar was incorporated into the pupal chamber. The major sources of setae are likely to be nests, dispersing pre-pupal larvae and their exuviae, and pupal chambers.
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Affiliation(s)
- L E Perkins
- School of Biological Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - M P Zalucki
- School of Biological Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - N R Perkins
- AusVet Animal Health Services, Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia
- Equine Research Unit, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Gatton, Queensland, Australia
| | - A J Cawdell-Smith
- Equine Research Unit, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Gatton, Queensland, Australia
| | | | - W L Bryden
- Equine Research Unit, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Gatton, Queensland, Australia
| | - B W Cribb
- School of Biological Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Centre for Microscopy and Microanalysis, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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Antonella T, Giorgia C, Eleonora DV, Romana PF, Flavia P, Severino P. An unusual case of processionary moth reaction. Int Wound J 2015; 13:1070. [PMID: 26400756 DOI: 10.1111/iwj.12483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Accepted: 07/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Tammaro Antonella
- NESMOS Department, Dermatology Unit, Sant'Andrea Hospital, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, University of Rome "Sapienza", Rome, Italy.
| | - Cortesi Giorgia
- NESMOS Department, Dermatology Unit, Sant'Andrea Hospital, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, University of Rome "Sapienza", Rome, Italy
| | - Di Vito Eleonora
- NESMOS Department, Dermatology Unit, Sant'Andrea Hospital, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, University of Rome "Sapienza", Rome, Italy
| | - Parisella F Romana
- Faculty of Medicine, Towson University, Department of Dermatology, Towson, MD, USA
| | - Pigliacelli Flavia
- NESMOS Department, Dermatology Unit, Sant'Andrea Hospital, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, University of Rome "Sapienza", Rome, Italy
| | - Persechino Severino
- NESMOS Department, Dermatology Unit, Sant'Andrea Hospital, Faculty of Medicine and Psychology, University of Rome "Sapienza", Rome, Italy
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Jullienne R, He Z, Manoli P, Grivet D, Cinotti E, Perrot JL, Labeille B, Cambazard F, Gain P, Thuret G. In vivo confocal microscopy of pine processionary caterpillar hair-induced keratitis. Cornea 2015; 34:350-2. [PMID: 25603232 DOI: 10.1097/ICO.0000000000000360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Multimodal imaging of processionary caterpillar hair-induced keratitis with anterior segment optical coherence tomography and in vivo confocal microscopy. METHODS Case report. RESULTS A 25-year-old woman presented with acute keratitis induced by multiple tiny processionary caterpillar hairs. She initially experienced severe pain and moderate vision loss, which gradually improved within a few weeks. Diagnosis was confirmed by in vivo confocal microscopy showing a pathognomonic image strictly comparable with ex vivo microscopy photography. CONCLUSIONS To the best of our knowledge, this is the first case of corneal in vivo confocal imaging of a caterpillar hair with confirmation by ex vivo microscopy.
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Berardi L, Battisti A, Negrisolo E. The allergenic protein Tha p 2 of processionary moths of the genus Thaumetopoea (Thaumetopoeinae, Notodontidae, Lepidoptera): Characterization and evolution. Gene 2015; 574:317-24. [PMID: 26275941 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2015.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2015] [Revised: 06/16/2015] [Accepted: 08/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The allergenic Tha p 2 protein has been extracted recently from the urticating setae of the pine processionary moth Thaumetopoea pityocampa. In the present paper, we test for the occurrence of this protein in other Thaumetopoeinae, with a particular focus on members of the genus Thaumetopoea, as well as unrelated moth species, to better understand the physicochemical properties of the protein, the nature of encoding genes and their evolutionary history. Tha p 2 is encoded by the intronless gene Tha p 2 that is restricted to the processionary moths (Thaumetopoeinae, Notodontidae, Lepidoptera). Most of the species present two isoforms of Tha p 2 that can be interpreted as the result of heterozygosity in the single gene. The only exception is represented by Thaumetopoea wilkinsoni, in which 20 different isoforms occur in a single specimen, leading to the conclusion that, at least in this species, multiple copies of Tha p 2 exist. Serine, glycine, cysteine and leucine are abundant in Tha p 2, a protein well conserved among processionary moths. The predicted secondary structures of Tha p 2 indicate the presence of 3 α-helices and six β-barrels. Finally, the evolution of the gene and the protein was characterized by a combination of positive and negative selection, with the latter being more evident.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Berardi
- Department of Agronomy Food Natural Resources Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, Agripolis, 35020 Legnaro, PD, Italy.
| | - Andrea Battisti
- Department of Agronomy Food Natural Resources Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, Agripolis, 35020 Legnaro, PD, Italy.
| | - Enrico Negrisolo
- Department of Comparative Biomedicine and Food Science (BCA), University of Padova, Agripolis, 35020 Legnaro, PD, Italy.
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