High potential of stable carbon sequestration in phytoliths of China's grasslands

Silicon in paddy fields: Benefits for rice production and the potential of rice phytoliths for biogeochemical carbon sequestration

Silicon (Si) biogeochemical cycling is beneficial for crop productivity and carbon (C) sequestration in agricultural ecosystem, thus offering a nonnegligible role in alleviating global warming and food crisis. Compared with other crops, rice plants have a greater quantity of phytolith production, because they are able to take up a lot of Si. However, it remains unclear on Si supply capacity of paddy soils across the world, general rice yield-increasing effect after Si fertilizer addition, and factors affecting phytolith production and potential of phytolith C sequestration in paddy fields. This study used a meta-analysis of >3500 data from 87 studies to investigate Si supply capacity of global paddy soils and elaborate the benefits of Si regarding rice productivity and phytolith C sequestration in paddy fields. Analytical results showed that the Si supply capacity of paddy soils was insufficient in the major rice producing countries/regions. Dealing with this predicament, Si fertilization was an effective strategy to supply plant-available Si to improve rice productivity. Our meta-analysis results further revealed that Si fertilization led to the average increasing rate of 36 % and 39 % in rice yield and biomass, which could reach up to 52 % and 46 % with the increasing doses of Si fertilizer, respectively. Especially, this strategy also improved the potential of phytolith C sequestration through the increased phytolith content and rice biomass, despite that this potential might have a decline in old paddy soils (≥ 7000 year) compared to in young paddy soils (≤ 1000 year) due to the slow migration and dissolution of phytoliths at millennial scale. Our findings thus indicate that a deep investigation on the benefits of Si in agroecosystem will further improve our understanding on regulating crop production and the potential of biogeochemical C sequestration within phytoliths in global cropland.

Location, speciation, and quantification of carbon in silica phytoliths using synchrotron scanning transmission X-ray microspectroscopy

Phytoliths of biogenic silica play a vital role in the silicon biogeochemical cycle and occlude a fraction of organic carbon. The location, chemical speciation, and quantification of this carbon within phytoliths have remained elusive due to limited direct experimental evidence. In this work, phytoliths (bilobate morphotype) from the sugarcane stalk epidermis are sectioned with a focused ion beam to produce lamellas (≈10 × 10 μm2 size, <500 nm thickness) and probed by synchrotron scanning transmission X-ray microspectroscopy (≈100-200 nm pixel size; energies near the silicon and carbon K-absorption edges). Analysis of the spectral image stacks reveals the complementarity of the silica and carbon spatial distributions, with carbon found at the borders of the lamellas, in islands within the silica, and dispersed in extended regions that can be described as a mixed silica-carbonaceous matrix. Carbon spectra are assigned mainly to lignin-like compounds as well as to proteins. Carbon contents of 3-14 wt.% are estimated from the spectral maps of four distinct phytolith lamellas. The results provide unprecedented spatial and chemical information on the carbon in phytoliths obtained without interference from wet-chemical digestion.

Spatial variation in stability of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) straw phytolith-occluded carbon in China

Global climate warming, driven by human activities emitting greenhouse gases like CO2, results in adverse effects, posing significant challenges to human health and food security. In response to this challenge, it is imperative to enhance long-term carbon sequestration, including phytolith-occluded carbon (PhytOC). Currently, there is a dearth of research on the assessment and distribution of the stability of PhytOC. Additionally, the intricate relationships and effects between the stability and environmental factors such as climate and soil remain insufficiently elucidated. Our study provided a composite assessment index for PhytOC stability based on a rapid solubility assay and principal component analysis. The machine learning models that we developed in this study, utilize experimentally and publicly accessible environmental data on large spatial scales, facilitating the prediction and spatial distribution mapping of the PhytOC stability using simple kriging interpolation in wheat ecosystems across China. We compared and evaluated 10 common classification machine learning models at 10-fold cross-validation. Based on the overall performance, the Stochastic Gradient Boosting model (GBM) was selected as predictive model. The stability is influenced by dynamic and complex environments with climate having a more significant impact. It was evident that light and temperature had a significant positive direct relationship with the stability, while the other factors showed indirect effects on the stability. PhytOC stability exhibited obvious zonal difference and spatial heterogeneity, with the distribution trend gradually decreasing from the southeast to the northwest in China. Overall, our research contributed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and achieving global climate targets, working towards a more sustainable and climate-resilient future.

PhytOC sequestration characteristics and phytolith carbon sink potential of karst Masson pine forest in southern China

Masson pine forest is an extremely important component of terrestrial ecosystems and plays a significant ecological function in forest carbon sink in China. Phytolith-occluded organic carbon (PhytOC) is the important long-term stable carbon sink mechanism in terrestrial ecosystems. To provide scientific bases for the accurate estimation of phytolith carbon sink and precise management of Masson pine forests, PhytOC sequestration and accumulation of the three typical forest ages of Masson pine in southern China karst area were studied in the present study. Although the sampling pots were still limited, PhytOC sequestration characteristics of the Masson pine forests were successfully clarified. The followed results and conclusions were obtained: 1) The range of PhytOC content, reserves, and sequestration rate of the Masson pine forests was 0.04-0.78 g·kg-1, 0.44-16.93 kg·hm-2, and 0.094-2.557 kg CO2 hm-2·a-1, respectively. 2) Among the three forest ages of Masson pine, the mature forest had the highest accumulation of PhytOC, and the middle-aged forest had the highest sequestration rate of PhytOC. Compared with biomass, vegetation productivity more positively significantly affected the PhytOC sequestration. 3) Among the three organs, leaves had the highest PhytOC content and trunks had the highest PhytOC reserves, which all took significant functions in the sequestration and accumulation of PhytOC. 4) Artificial measures to promote vegetation productivity, such as thinning, artificial tending, and low-efficiency forest transformation, will significantly increase the PhytOC sequestration and accumulation of Masson pine forests.

Silicon fractionations in coastal wetland sediments: Implications for biogeochemical silicon cycling

Coastal wetland sediment is important reservoir for silicon (Si), and plays an essential role in controlling its biogeochemical cycling. However, little is known about Si fractionations and the associated factors driving their transformations in coastal wetland sediments. In this study, we applied an optimized sequential Si extraction method to separate six sub-fractions of non-crystalline Si (Sinoncry) in sediments from two coastal wetlands, including Si in dissolved silicate (Sidis), Si in the adsorbed silicate (Siad), Si bound to organic matter (Siorg), Si occluded in pedogenic oxides and hydroxides (Siocc), Si in biogenic amorphous silica (Siba), and Si in pedogenic amorphous silica (Sipa). The results showed that the highest proportion of Si in the Sinoncry fraction was Siba (up to 6.6 % of total Si (Sitot)), followed by the Sipa (up to 1.8 % of Sitot). The smallest proportion of Si was found in the Sidis and Siad fractions with the sum of both being <0.1 % of the Sitot. We found a lower Siocc content (188 ± 96.1 mg kg-1) when compared to terrestrial soils. The Sidis was at the center of the inter-transformation among Si fractions, regulating the biogeochemical Si cycling of coastal wetland sediments. Redundancy analysis (RDA) combined with Pearson's correlations further showed that the basic biogenic elements (total organic carbon and total nitrogen), pH, and sediment salinity collectively controlled the Si fractionations in coastal wetland sediments. Our research optimizes sediment Si fractionation procedure and provides insights into the role of sedimentary Si fractions in controlling Si dynamics and knowledge for unraveling the biogeochemical Si cycling in coastal ecosystems.

Evapotranspiration-linked silica deposition in a basal tracheophyte plant (Lycopodiaceae: Lycopodiella alopecuroides): implications for the evolutionary origins of phytoliths

Phytoliths, microscopic deposits of hydrated silica within plants, play a myriad of functional roles in extant tracheophytes - yet their evolutionary origins and the original selective pressures leading to their deposition remain poorly understood. To gain new insights into the ancestral condition of tracheophyte phytolith production and function, phytolith content was intensively assayed in a basal, morphologically conserved tracheophyte: the foxtail clubmoss Lycopodiella alopecuroides. Wet ashing was employed to perform phytolith extractions from every major anatomical region of L. alopecuroides. Phytolith occurrence was recorded, alongside abundance, morphometric information, and morphological descriptions. Phytoliths were recovered exclusively from the microphylls, which were apicodistally silicified into multiphytolith aggregates. Phytolith aggregates were larger and more numerous in anatomical regions engaging in greater evapotranspirational activity. The tissue distribution of L. alopecuroides phytoliths is inconsistent with the expectations of proposed adaptive hypotheses of phytolith evolutionary origin. Instead, it is hypothesized that phytoliths may have arisen incidentally in the L. alopecuroides-like ancestral plant, polymerizing from intraplant silicon accumulations arising via bulk flow and 'leaky' cellular micronutrient channels. This basal, nonadaptive phytolith formation model would provide the evolutionary 'raw material' for later modification into the useful, adaptative, phytolith deposits seen in later-diverging plant clades.

Habitats generated by the restoration of coal mining subsidence land differentially alter the content and composition of soil organic carbon

The content and composition of soil organic carbon (SOC) can characterize soil carbon storage capacity, which varies significantly between habitats. Ecological restoration in coal mining subsidence land forms a variety of habitats, which are ideal to study the effects of habitats on SOC storage capacity. Based on the analysis of the content and composition of SOC in three habitats (farmland, wetland and lakeside grassland) generated by different restoration time of the farmland which was destroyed by coal mining subsidence, we found that farmland had the highest SOC storage capacity among the three habitats. Both dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and heavy fraction organic carbon (HFOC) exhibited higher concentrations in the farmland (20.29 mg/kg, 6.96 mg/g) than in the wetland (19.62 mg/kg, 2.47 mg/g) or lakeside grassland (5.68 mg/kg, 2.31 mg/g), and the concentrations increased significantly over time, owing to the higher content of nitrogen in the farmland. The wetland and lakeside grassland needed more time than the farmland to recover the SOC storage capacity. The findings illustrate that the SOC storage capacity of farmland destroyed by coal mining subsidence could be restored through ecological restoration and indicate that the recovery rate depends on the reconstructed habitat types, among which farmland shows great advantages mainly due to the nitrogen addition.

Determinants of phytolith occluded carbon in bamboo stands across forest types in the eastern Indian Himalayas

Phytoliths are known to play a significant role in the global carbon cycle by sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide as phytolith-occluded carbon (PhytOC) for a long time. Given the resistant nature of phytolith to decomposition, PhytOC can represent up to 82 % of total carbon in some soil and sediments even after 2000 years of litter decomposition. Hence, forests with high PhytOC sequestration rates could play a critical role in increasing terrestrial carbon storage. In this study, we quantified the variation in PhytOC concentrations in bamboo leaves, branches and culms with forest types in the Eastern Indian Himalayas as bamboos are efficient accumulator of phytolith and PhytOC due to their fast growth and high biomass accumulation rates. Using nine different machine learning techniques, we also investigated the determinants of PhytOC production in bamboo stands in the study area in India. The results revealed that the PhytOC concentrations in bamboo stands were in the order of leaf (3.0 g kg^-1) > culm (1.0 g kg^-1) > branch (0.2 g kg^-1) across forest types. The highest PhytOC stock (53.8 kg ha^-1) was found in bamboo stands in the subtropical pine forests (1900-3500 m elevation), while the lowest (28.0 kg ha^-1) was in the tropical evergreen forests (<900 m elevation). Machine learning techniques established a positive correlation of PhytOC content in leaf and total PhytOC content with soil available phosphorus, elevation, total nitrogen, exchangeable potassium, atmospheric humidity, SOC content, CEC and pH. Numerical evaluation criteria and graphic methods identified artificial neural network (ANN) and support vector regression as the superior techniques with a root mean square error value of 0.52 kg ha^-1 and 0.59 kg ha^-1 respectively. The results of these two models were found to be better among all the nine machine learning algorithms used. The high PhytOC storage in the bamboo stands in the Indian Himalayan region suggests that forest management could secure a stable carbon sink on a millennial scale.

Specific PhytOC fractions in rice straw and consequent implications for potential of phytolith carbon sequestration in global paddy fields

Phytoliths are silica biomineralization products within plants and have been considered as a promising material to sequester carbon (C). However, there is considerable uncertainty and controversy regarding the C content in phytoliths due to the lack of detailed information on variation of C under different extraction procedures. Herein, we established a series of batch digestion experimental procedures coupled with analyses of phytoliths using Scanning Electron Microscopy and Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy to divide phytoliths into three fractions. We then reported an approach for standardizing across hundreds of values found in the literature. Combining this standardized approach with C contents in phytoliths extracted from different digestion degrees, we revaluated the potential production rates of phytolith-occluded carbon (PhytOC) input globally in rice paddy fields. The results showed that the C content in recovered phytoliths exhibited a significantly fitting exponential relationship (p < 0.01) with digestion degrees and decreased from 30 to 75 g kg^-1 under moderate digestion to <5 g kg^-1 under over digestion. On a global scale, the production of total PhytOC in the world paddy fields reached up to (2.71 ± 0.85) × 10⁶ t year^-1. Therein, the contribution of sub-stable PhytOC fraction, stable PhytOC fraction, and recalcitrant PhytOC fraction was 63 %, 28 %, and 9 %, respectively. Our results imply that the estimation of phytolith C sequestration potential across the global paddy fields is associated with specific PhytOC fractions. Therefore, further determining the storage time limits of these specific PhytOC fractions after returning to soil will be vital for predicting terrestrial biogeochemical C sequestration potentials of phytoliths.

Phytolith occluded organic carbon in Fagopyrum (Polygonaceae) plants: Insights on the carbon sink potential of cultivated buckwheat planting

Crop cultivation has great potential to result in a phytolith carbon sink and can play important roles in the long-term stable carbon sequestration of terrestrial ecosystems. Buckwheat, an important multigrain crop with a very long cultivation history, is widely planted around the world. The phytolith carbon sink potential of buckwheat planting is still limited in the in-depth understanding of biogeochemical carbon sequestration in croplands. In order to estimate the phytolith carbon sink potential of buckwheat planting, in the present study, six species including 17 populations of Fagopyrum plants were selected as study materials. Firstly, their phytoliths were extracted using the wet oxidation method; then, the phytolith-occluded organic carbon (PhytOC) contents were determined using the spectrophotometry method; finally, the phytolith carbon sink potential of buckwheat planting was estimated. Results showed the following: 1) The PhytOC content range of the six Fagopyrum species studied was 0.006%~0.038%, which was significantly lower than that of rice, wheat, sugarcane, and some cereal and oil crops. There were significant differences in total silicon, phytolith, and PhytOC content of Fagopyrum plants among the different species, different organs (root, stem, and leaf), and different living forms (annual, partly perennial, and completely perennial). There were significant positive relationships between PhytOC and phytolith content and between phytolith and total silicon content. 2) The average phytolith carbon sequestration rate of Fagopyrum esculentum and Fagopyrum tataricum planting was 2.62 × 10^-3 and 1.17 × 10^-3 t CO₂ hm^-2·a^-1, respectively, being approximately equal to that of terrestrial shrub vegetation. 3) The global total amount of phytolith carbon sequestration of buckwheat planting reached 5,102.09 t CO₂ in 2018, and the Chinese total amount of phytolith carbon sequestration of buckwheat cultivation was 624.79 t CO₂ in 2020. The phytolith carbon sink of buckwheat planting had significant potential for playing obvious roles in the carbon cycle. The present results are of great significance in crop phytolith studies and provide important references for phytolith carbon sink potential estimation of farmland ecosystems.

Phytolith-occluded carbon in leaves of Dendrocalamus Ronganensis influenced by drought during growing season

Being an important carbon (C) sink, phytolith-occluded carbon (PhytOC) has been investigated in various soil-plant systems. However, the effects of environmental factors (i.e., drought) on phytoliths, including altered deposition in plant tissues, morphological variation, and amounts of carbon occluded within phytoliths, are less studied. In this study, we analyzed the monthly variations of phytolith production and PhytOC in the leaves of Dendrocalamus ronganensis grown on a karst mountain in southwestern China during a drought year. This study thus sought to understand the effects of drought on phytolith formation, morphological variations and carbon sequestration within phytoliths in plants. Our results showed that the phytolith assemblages and PhytOC between new and old leaves differed significantly and varied with plant growth stages. The average PhytOC values of old leaves and tip leaves were 3.2% and 2.2%, respectively. In particular, both PhytOC and proportions of ELONGATE, BULLIFORM FLABELLATE, and STOMA phytoliths in tip leaves significantly decreased from September to January the following year because of drought effects. This study suggests that PhytOC in plants varies between phytolith morphotypes and is significantly affected by plant growth stage and hydrologic conditions. This indicates that we can improve the efficiency of phytolith carbon sequestration in plants by improving the soil water conditions required for plant growth.

Phytolith Production and Morphotypes in Modern Plants on the Tibetan Plateau

Tibetan Plateau is the "third pole" of Earth and significantly influences the world's ecosystems. However, limited work on phytolith analysis has been done due to its harsh environment, and no study on phytolith production and morphotypes in modern plants on the Tibetan Plateau has been carried out yet. In this study, we investigated 73 modern plant samples collected on the Tibetan Plateau to study phytolith production and morphology. The results showed that the major phytolith producers are Poaceae and Cyperaceae plants, the production of phytolith is higher than 0.4 million grains/g in most samples. We found one new morphotype, BILOBATE SADDLE, which could be the diagnostic type for Tribe Stipeae and phytoliths morphotypes might indicate different hydrological conditions on the Tibetan Plateau. Our findings add new information about phytoliths on the Tibetan Plateau and will aid the future phytolith analysis in this region.