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De Bonville J, Côté A, Binning SA. Thermal tolerance and survival are modulated by a natural gradient of infection in differentially acclimated hosts. Conserv Physiol 2024; 12:coae015. [PMID: 38629117 PMCID: PMC11020239 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coae015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Revised: 02/03/2024] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
Wild ectotherms are exposed to multiple stressors, including parasites, that can affect their responses to environmental change. Simultaneously, unprecedented warm temperatures are being recorded worldwide, increasing both the average and maximum temperatures experienced in nature. Understanding how ectotherms, such as fishes, will react to the combined stress of parasites and higher average temperatures can help predict the impact of extreme events such as heat waves on populations. The critical thermal method (CTM), which assesses upper (CTmax) and lower (CTmin) thermal tolerance, is often used in acclimated ectotherms to help predict their tolerance to various temperature scenarios. Despite the widespread use of the CTM across taxa, few studies have characterized the response of naturally infected fish to extreme temperature events or how acute thermal stress affects subsequent survival. We acclimated naturally infected pumpkinseed sunfish (Lepomis gibbosus) to four ecologically relevant temperatures (10, 15, 20 and 25°C) and one future warming scenario (30°C) for 3 weeks before measuring CTmax and CTmin. We also assessed individual survival the week following CTmax. Parasites were counted and identified following trials to relate infection intensity to thermal tolerance and survival. Interestingly, trematode parasites causing black spot disease were negatively related to CTmax, suggesting that heavily infected fish are less tolerant to acute warming. Moreover, fish infected with yellow grub parasites showed decreased survival in the days following CTmax implying that the infection load has negative survival consequences on sunfish during extreme warming events. Our findings indicate that, when combined, parasite infection and high prolonged average temperatures can affect fish thermal tolerance and survival, emphasizing the need to better understand the concomitant effects of stressors on health outcomes in wild populations. This is especially true given that some parasite species are expected to thrive in warming waters making host fish species especially at risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jérémy De Bonville
- Groupe de Recherche Interuniversitaire en Limnologie et en Environnement Aquatique (GRIL), Département de Sciences Biologiques, Université de Montréal, 1375 Av.Théres̀e-Lavoie-Roux, Montréal, QC, H2V 0B3, Canada
| | - Ariane Côté
- Groupe de Recherche Interuniversitaire en Limnologie et en Environnement Aquatique (GRIL), Département de Sciences Biologiques, Université de Montréal, 1375 Av.Théres̀e-Lavoie-Roux, Montréal, QC, H2V 0B3, Canada
| | - Sandra A Binning
- Groupe de Recherche Interuniversitaire en Limnologie et en Environnement Aquatique (GRIL), Département de Sciences Biologiques, Université de Montréal, 1375 Av.Théres̀e-Lavoie-Roux, Montréal, QC, H2V 0B3, Canada
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Lovy J, Friend SE. Black sea bass are a host in the developmental cycle of Lernaeenicus radiatus (Copepoda: Pennellidae): insights into parasite morphology, gill pathology and genetics. Parasitology 2020; 147:478-90. [PMID: 31852554 DOI: 10.1017/S0031182019001781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Lernaeenicus radiatus, a mesoparasitic pennellid copepod, has long been known in the northwest Atlantic with metamorphosed females infecting the muscle of marine fish. The study herein is the first to identify a definitive first host, black sea bass Centropristis striata, for L. radiatus supporting larval development to adults and sexual reproduction in the gills. This finding suggests a two-host life cycle for L. radiatus, with black sea bass as the first host. Heavy infections in the gill were associated with considerable pathology related to a unique and invasive attachment process that penetrated the gill and selectively attached to the gill filament cartilage. The morphology of the developing copepod was highly conserved with that of a related pennellid copepod, Lernaeocera branchialis, though was distinguished by the attachment process, unique pigmentation and other morphologic features described herein. Sequencing the small and large subunits of the ribosomal RNA and mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I genes demonstrated L. radiatus to share closer identities with Lernaeocera and Haemobaphes spp. pennellid copepods rather than other Lernaeenicus spp. available in GenBank to date. Taxonomy of L. radiatus is discussed in relation to life cycles, tissue tropism, morphology and genetics of other closely related pennellid copepods.
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Norin T, Canada P, Bailey JA, Gamperl AK. Thermal biology and swimming performance of Atlantic cod ( Gadus morhua) and haddock ( Melanogrammus aeglefinus). PeerJ 2019; 7:e7784. [PMID: 31592351 PMCID: PMC6777481 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.7784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2019] [Accepted: 08/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) and haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) are two commercially important marine fishes impacted by both overfishing and climate change. Increasing ocean temperatures are affecting the physiology of these species and causing changes in distribution, growth, and maturity. While the physiology of cod has been well investigated, that of haddock has received very little attention. Here, we measured the metabolic response to increasing temperatures, as well as the critical thermal maximum (CTmax), of cod acclimated to 8 and 12 °C and haddock acclimated to 12 °C. We also compared the swimming performance (critical swimming speed, Ucrit) of cod and haddock at 12 °C, as well as the Ucrit of 12 °C-acclimated cod acutely exposed to a higher-than-optimal temperature (16 °C). The CTmax for cod was 21.4 and 23.0 °C for 8- and 12 °C-acclimated fish, respectively, whereas that for the 12 °C-acclimated haddock was 23.9 °C. These values were all significantly different and show that haddock are more tolerant of high temperatures. The aerobic maximum metabolic rate (MMR) of swimming cod remained high at 16 °C, suggesting that maximum oxygen transport capacity was not limited at a temperature above optimal in this species. However, signs of impaired swimming (struggling) were becoming evident at 16 °C. Haddock were found to reach a higher Ucrit than cod at 12 °C (3.02 vs. 2.62 body lengths s−1, respectively), and at a lower MMR. Taken together, these results suggest that haddock perform better than cod in warmer conditions, and that haddock are the superior swimmer amongst the two species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tommy Norin
- Department of Ocean Sciences, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, Canada.,DTU Aqua: National Institute of Aquatic Resources, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Paula Canada
- Department of Ocean Sciences, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, Canada.,Oceanic Observatory of Madeira, Agência Regional para o Desenvolvimento da Investigação Tecnologia e Inovação, Funchal, Portugal.,CIIMAR-Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Universidade do Porto, Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Jason A Bailey
- Department of Ocean Sciences, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, Canada.,Vattenbrukscentrum Ost, East Region Aquaculture Centre, Vreta Kloster, Sweden
| | - A Kurt Gamperl
- Department of Ocean Sciences, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, Canada
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Leeuwis RHJ, Nash GW, Sandrelli RM, Zanuzzo FS, Gamperl AK. The environmental tolerances and metabolic physiology of sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria). Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2019; 231:140-148. [PMID: 30743060 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2019.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Revised: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Given the potential impacts of global warming, such as increases in temperature and the frequency/severity of hypoxia in marine ecosystems, it is important to study the impacts of these environmental challenges on sea-cage reared aquaculture species. This study focuses on the sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria), an emerging aquaculture species that has a unique ecology in the wild. For instance, adults inhabit oxygen minimum zones and cool waters at depths up to 1500 m. Using Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) (~1132 g adults) as a comparative species, we used intermittent-flow respirometry to characterize the tolerance and metabolic response of sablefish (~10 g juveniles and ~675 g adults) to acute increases in temperature (2 °C h-1) and decreases in oxygen level (~10% air saturation h-1). Adult sablefish were much more hypoxia tolerant than adult salmon [O2 level at loss of equilibrium ~5.4% vs. ~24.2% air saturation, respectively]. In addition, sablefish could withstand upper temperatures only slightly lower than salmon [critical thermal maximum (CTmax) ~24.9 °C vs. ~26.2 °C, respectively]. Sablefish juveniles were both less hypoxia and thermally tolerant than adults [critical O2 tension ~18.9% vs. ~15.8% air saturation; CTmax ~22.7 vs. ~24.9 °C, respectively]. Interestingly, many of these differences in environmental tolerance could not be explained by differences in metabolic parameters (aerobic scope or routine metabolic rate). Our findings show that sablefish are tolerant of high temperatures, and very tolerant of hypoxia, traits that are advantageous for an aquaculture species in the era of climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robine H J Leeuwis
- Department of Ocean Sciences, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1C 5S7, Canada.
| | - Gordon W Nash
- Department of Ocean Sciences, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1C 5S7, Canada
| | - Rebeccah M Sandrelli
- Department of Ocean Sciences, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1C 5S7, Canada
| | - Fábio S Zanuzzo
- Department of Ocean Sciences, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1C 5S7, Canada
| | - Anthony K Gamperl
- Department of Ocean Sciences, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1C 5S7, Canada
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MacLeod MJ, Vo NTK, Mikhaeil MS, Monaghan SR, Alexander JAN, Saran MK, Lee LEJ. Development of a continuous cell line from larval Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) and its use in the study of the microsporidian, Loma morhua. J Fish Dis 2018; 41:1359-1372. [PMID: 29882595 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.12830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Revised: 05/01/2018] [Accepted: 05/02/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
In vitro cell culture methods are crucial for the isolation, purification and mass propagation of intracellular pathogens of aquatic organisms. Cell culture infection models can yield insights into infection mechanisms, aid in developing methods for disease mitigation and prevention, and inform commercial-scale cultivation approaches. This study details the establishment of a larval cell line (GML-5) from the Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) and its use in the study of microsporidia. GML-5 has survived over 100 passages in 8 years of culture. The line remains active and viable between 8 and 21°C in Leibovitz-15 (L-15) media with 10% foetal bovine serum and exhibits a myofibroblast phenotype as indicated by immuno-positive results for vimentin, α-smooth muscle actin, collagen I and S-100 proteins, while being desmin-negative. GML-5 supports the infection and development of two microsporidian parasites, an opportunistic generalist (Anncaliia algerae) and cod-specific Loma morhua. Using GML-5, spore germination and proliferation of L. morhua was found to require exposure to basic pH and cool incubation temperatures (8°C), in contrast to A. algerae, which required no cultural modifications. Loma morhua-associated xenoma-like structures were observed 2 weeks postexposure. This in vitro infection model may serve as a valuable tool for cod parasitology and aquaculture research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J MacLeod
- Department of Biology, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | - Nguyen T K Vo
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | | | | | | | - Mandeep K Saran
- Faculty of Science, University of the Fraser Valley, Abbotsford, BC, Canada
| | - Lucy E J Lee
- Department of Biology, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, ON, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
- Faculty of Science, University of the Fraser Valley, Abbotsford, BC, Canada
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Borucinska JD, Morka D, Grabowski Z, Smith H. A follow-up study of selected biomarkers of health in cod Gadus morhua L. collected from the southern Baltic off the Polish coast. J Fish Dis 2017; 40:1883-1894. [PMID: 28661024 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.12663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2017] [Accepted: 04/28/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Selected biomarkers of health were examined in 50 post-spawning cod Gadus morhua collected in November 2015 from the southern Baltic. The biomarkers included condition factor (CF), macroscopic lesions, histopathology of spleen, liver and gonads, and morphometry of follicular atresia and hepatic and splenic melanomacrophage cells (MMC). All fish appeared in good body condition. One fish had a dermal ulcer, and in seven, macroscopic nematodes were noted within body cavity. Microscopic lesions in the liver included biliary myxozoanosis, microsporidial and necrocentric granulomas, parasitic hepatitis, multifocal necrosis, foci of cellular alterations, spongiosis, peliosis and cytoplasmic fibrillar inclusions. The spleen and gonads had microsporidial and/or necrocentric granulomas. Some of the biomarkers showed differences as compared to spawning cod collected in May from the same location in 2012, most importantly values an order of magnitude lower for splenic MMC in post-spawning fish. In post-spawning fish, there were statistically significant correlations between MMC, CF, follicular atresia, parasitic hepatitis and microsporidiosis. This is the first comparison of biomarkers of health in post-spawning and spawning Baltic cod. Future studies need to examine the relationships of biomarkers to levels of pollutants in the environment and in tissues of cod.
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Borucinska
- Department of Biology, University of Hartford, West Hartford, CT, USA
| | - D Morka
- Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Pomeranian University, Slupsk, Poland
| | - Z Grabowski
- School of the Environment, Portland State University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - H Smith
- Department of Biology, University of Hartford, West Hartford, CT, USA
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Lund M, Krudtaa Dahle M, Timmerhaus G, Alarcon M, Powell M, Aspehaug V, Rimstad E, Jørgensen SM. Hypoxia tolerance and responses to hypoxic stress during heart and skeletal muscle inflammation in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). PLoS One 2017; 12:e0181109. [PMID: 28700748 PMCID: PMC5507449 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0181109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2017] [Accepted: 06/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Heart and skeletal muscle inflammation (HSMI) is associated with Piscine orthoreovirus (PRV) infection and is an important disease in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) aquaculture. Since PRV infects erythrocytes and farmed salmon frequently experience environmental hypoxia, the current study examined mutual effects of PRV infection and hypoxia on pathogenesis and fish performance. Furthermore, effects of HSMI on hypoxia tolerance, cardiorespiratory performance and blood oxygen transport were studied. A cohabitation trial including PRV-infected post-smolts exposed to periodic hypoxic stress (4 h of 40% O2; PRV-H) at 4, 7 and 10 weeks post-infection (WPI) and infected fish reared under normoxic conditions (PRV) was conducted. Periodic hypoxic stress did not influence infection levels or histopathological changes in the heart. Individual incipient lethal oxygen saturation (ILOS) was examined using a standardized hypoxia challenge test (HCT). At 7 WPI, i.e. peak level of infection, both PRV and PRV-H groups exhibited reduced hypoxia tolerance compared to non-infected fish. Three weeks later (10 WPI), during peak levels of pathological changes, reduced hypoxia tolerance was still observed for the PRV group while PRV-H performed equal to non-infected fish, implying a positive effect of the repeated exposure to hypoxic stress. This was in line with maximum heart rate (fHmax) measurements, showing equal performance of PRV-H and non-infected groups, but lower fHmax above 19°C as well as lower temperature optimum (Topt) for aerobic scope for PRV, suggesting reduced cardiac performance and thermal tolerance. In contrast, the PRV-H group had reduced hemoglobin-oxygen affinity compared to non-infected fish. In conclusion, Atlantic salmon suffering from HSMI have reduced hypoxia tolerance and cardiac performance, which can be improved by preconditioning fish to transient hypoxic stress episodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morten Lund
- Section of Immunology, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Oslo and Harstad, Norway
- * E-mail:
| | - Maria Krudtaa Dahle
- Section of Immunology, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Oslo and Harstad, Norway
| | - Gerrit Timmerhaus
- Nofima AS, Norwegian Institute of Food, Fisheries & Aquaculture Research, Ås, Norway
| | - Marta Alarcon
- Section of Immunology, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Oslo and Harstad, Norway
| | - Mark Powell
- University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Bergen, Norway
| | | | - Espen Rimstad
- Department of Food Safety and Infection Biology, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Sven Martin Jørgensen
- Nofima AS, Norwegian Institute of Food, Fisheries & Aquaculture Research, Ås, Norway
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Frenette AP, Eydal M, Hansen H, Burt MDB, Duffy MS. Integrative Approach for the Reliable Detection and Specific Identification of the Microsporidium Loma morhua in Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua). J Eukaryot Microbiol 2016; 64:67-77. [PMID: 27317934 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2016] [Revised: 06/04/2016] [Accepted: 06/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Microsporidia are fungal parasites that infect diverse invertebrate and vertebrate hosts. Finfish aquaculture supports epizootics due to high host density and the high biotic potential of these parasites. Reliable methods for parasite detection and identification are a necessary precursor to empirical assessment of strategies to mitigate the effects of these pathogens during aquaculture. We developed an integrative approach to detect and identify Loma morhua infecting Atlantic cod. We show that the spleen is more reliable than the commonly presumed gills as best organ for parasite detection in spite of substantial morphological plasticity in xenoma complexes. We developed rDNA primers with 100% sensitivity in detecting L. morhua and with utility in distinguishing some congeneric Loma species. ITS sequencing is necessary to distinguish L. morhua from other congeneric microsporidia due to intraspecific nucleotide variation. 64% of L. morhua ITS variants from Atlantic cod have a 9-nucleotide motif that distinguishes it from Loma spp. infecting non-Gadus hosts. The remaining 36% of ITS variants from Atlantic cod are distinguished from currently represented Loma spp., particularly those infecting Gadus hosts, based on a 14-nucleotide motif. This research approach is amenable to developing templates in support of reliable detection and identification of other microsporidian parasites in fishes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron P Frenette
- Department of Biology, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5A3, Canada
| | - Matthías Eydal
- Institute for Experimental Pathology at Keldur, University of Iceland, Keldnavegur 3, 112, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Haakon Hansen
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Ullevalsveien 68, Pb 750 Sentrum, N-0106, Oslo, Norway
| | - Michael D B Burt
- Department of Biology, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5A3, Canada
| | - Michael S Duffy
- Department of Biology, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, E3B 5A3, Canada
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Motyka R, Norin T, Petersen LH, Huggett DB, Gamperl AK. Long-term hypoxia exposure alters the cardiorespiratory physiology of steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), but does not affect their upper thermal tolerance. J Therm Biol 2017; 68:149-61. [PMID: 28797475 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2016.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2015] [Revised: 03/15/2016] [Accepted: 03/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
It has been suggested that exposure to high temperature or hypoxia may confer tolerance to the other oxygen-limited stressor (i.e., 'cross-tolerance'). Thus, we investigated if chronic hypoxia-acclimation (>3 months at 40% air saturation) improved the steelhead trout's critical thermal maximum (CTMax), or affected key physiological variables that could impact upper thermal tolerance. Neither CTMax (24.7 vs. 25.3°C) itself, nor oxygen consumption ( [Formula: see text] ), haematocrit, blood haemoglobin concentration, or heart rate differed between hypoxia- and normoxia-acclimated trout when acutely warmed. However, the cardiac output (Q̇) of hypoxia-acclimated fish plateaued earlier compared to normoxia-acclimated fish due to an inability to maintain stroke volume (SV), and this resulted in a ~50% lower maximum Q̇. Despite this reduced maximum cardiac function, hypoxia-acclimated trout were able to consume more O2 per volume of blood pumped as evidenced by the equivalent [Formula: see text] . These results provide additional evidence that long-term hypoxia improves tissue oxygen utilization, and that this compensates for diminished cardiac pumping capacity. The limited SV in hypoxia-acclimated trout in vivo was not associated with changes in cardiac morphology or in vitro maximum SV, but the affinity and density of myocardial ß-adrenoreceptors were lower and higher, respectively, than in normoxia-acclimated fish. These data suggest that alterations in ventricular filling dynamics or myocardial contractility constrain cardiac function in hypoxia-acclimated fish at high temperatures. Our results do not support (1) 'cross-tolerance' between high temperature and hypoxia when hypoxia is chronic, or (2) that cardiac function is always the determinant of temperature-induced changes in fish [Formula: see text] , and thus thermal tolerance, as suggested by the oxygen- and capacity-limited thermal tolerance (OCLTT) theory.
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