Anti-Inflammatory Potential of Carpomitra costata Ethanolic Extracts via Inhibition of NF-κB and AP-1 Activation in LPS-Stimulated RAW264.7 Macrophages

Karenia brevis Extract Induces Cellular Entry through Distinct Mechanisms in Phagocytic RAW 264.7 Macrophages versus Non-Phagocytic Vero Cells

Marine algae extracts are an important area of potential drug discovery; however, nearly all studies to date have used non-fluorescent-based methods to determine changes in target cell activity. Many of the most robust immunological and cellular analyses rely on fluorescent probes and readouts, which can be problematic when the algae extract is fluorescent itself. In this study, we identified the fluorescent spectrum of an isolated extract from the marine dinoflagellate Karenia brevis, which included two fluorescing components: chlorophyll α and pheophytin α. When excited at 405 nm and 664 nm, the extract emitted fluorescence at 676 nm and 696 nm, respectively. The extract and its fluorescing components, chlorophyll α and pheophytin α, entered phagocytic RAW 264.7 macrophages and non-phagocytic Vero kidney cells through distinct mechanisms. When incubated with the extract and its main components, both the RAW 264.7 macrophages and the Vero cells accumulated fluorescence as early as 30 min and continued through 48 h. Vero kidney cells accumulated the K. brevis fluorescent extract through a dynamin-independent and acidified endosomal-dependent mechanism. RAW 264.7 macrophages accumulated fluorescent extract through a dynamin-independent, acidified endosomal-independent mechanism, which supports accumulation through phagocytosis. Furthermore, RAW 264.7 macrophages downregulated cell-surface expression of CD206 in response to extract stimulation indicating activation of phagocytic responses and potential immunosuppression of these immune cells. This study represents the first characterization of the cellular update of K. brevis extracts in phagocytic versus non-phagocytic cells. The data suggest the importance of understanding cellular uptake of fluorescing algae extracts and their mechanism of action for future drug discovery efforts.

Carnosol Attenuates LPS-Induced Inflammation of Cardiomyoblasts by Inhibiting NF-κB: A Mechanistic in Vitro and in Silico Study

Carnosol possesses several beneficial pharmacological properties. However, its role in lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced inflammation and cardiomyocyte cell line (H9C2) has never been investigated. Therefore, the effect of carnosol and an NF-κB inhibitor BAY 11-7082 was examined, and the underlying role of the NF-κB-dependent inflammatory pathway was analyzed as the target enzyme. Cell viability, inflammatory cytokines levels (tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and prostaglandin E 2 (PGE2)), and related gene expression (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)) were analyzed by ELISA and real-time PCR. In addition, docking studies analyzed carnosol's molecular interactions and binding modes to NF-κB and IKK. We report that LPS caused the reduction of cell viability while enhancing both cytokines protein and mRNA levels (P < 0.001, for all cases). However, the BAY 11-7082 pretreatment of the cells and carnosol increased cell viability and reduced cytokine protein and mRNA levels (P < 0.001 vs. LPS, for all cases). Furthermore, our in silico analyses also supported the modulation of NF-κB and IKK by carnosol. This evidence highlights the defensive effects of carnosol against sepsis-induced myocardial dysfunction and, contextually, paved the rationale for the next in vitro and in vivo studies aimed to precisely describe its mechanism(s) of action.

Mechanism of Action of Dengzhan Shengmai in Regulating Stroke from an Inflammatory Perspective: A Preliminary Analysis of Network Pharmacology

Stroke is a complicated disease with an increasing incidence and a very high mortality rate. A classical Chinese herbal medicine, Dengzhan Shengmai (DZSM), has shown to have therapeutic effects on stroke; however, its chemical basis and molecular mechanism are still unclear. In this study, a systems biology approach was applicable to elucidate the underlying mechanism of action of DZSM on stroke. All the compounds were obtained from databases, and pendant-related targets were obtained from various data platforms, including the TCM Systematic Pharmacology (TCMSP) database, TCM Integrated Database (TCMIP), High Throughput Experimental Reference Database (HERB), Comparative Toxicogenomics Database (CTD), SwissTargetPredicition, and SymMap, The Human Gene Database (GENECARD) and Comparative Toxicogenomics Database (CTD) were used for stroke disease target data, followed by network pharmacology analysis to predict the potential effect of DZSM on stroke. Animal experiments were intended to validate the underlying mechanisms. A total of 846 chemical components were compiled for the targets of DZSM drug, and quercetin, kaempferol, and Wuweizisu C are the highest chemical components compiled from DZSM. Overlapping with 375 disease-specific targets and 149 core targets, the core targets include TNF, IL-6, ALB, and AKT1, which are shown to regulate the disease process from an anti-inflammatory perspective. 198 enrichment messages were obtained by KEGG enrichment analysis, and we believe that the role of the AGE-RAGE signaling pathway in diabetic complications, TNF signaling pathway, and IL-17 signaling pathway is more important. Based on rat experiments, we also demonstrated that DZSM could effectively modulate the inflammation level of brain infarct tissues and effectively alleviate behavioral characteristics. Grouped together, our study suggests that the combination of network pharmacology prediction and experimental validation can provide a useful tool to describe the molecular mechanisms of DZSM in Chinese medicine (TCM).

A Highly Selective In Vitro JNK3 Inhibitor, FMU200, Restores Mitochondrial Membrane Potential and Reduces Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis in SH-SY5Y Cells

Current treatments for neurodegenerative diseases (ND) are symptomatic and do not affect disease progression. Slowing this progression remains a crucial unmet need for patients and their families. c-Jun N-terminal kinase 3 (JNK3) are related to several ND hallmarks including apoptosis, oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuroinflammation. JNK inhibitors can play an important role in addressing neuroprotection. This research aims to evaluate the neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects of a synthetic compound (FMU200) with known JNK3 inhibitory activity in SH-SY5Y and RAW264.7 cell lines. SH-SY5Y cells were pretreated with FMU200 and cell damage was induced by 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) or hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). Cell viability and neuroprotective effect were assessed with an MTT assay. Flow cytometric analysis was performed to evaluate cell apoptosis. The H₂O₂-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) were evaluated by DCFDA and JC-1 assays, respectively. The anti-inflammatory effect was determined in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells by ELISA assay. In undifferentiated SH-SY5Y cells, FMU200 decreased neurotoxicity induced by 6-OHDA in approximately 20%. In RA-differentiated cells, FMU200 diminished cell death in approximately 40% and 90% after 24 and 48 h treatment, respectively. FMU200 reduced both early and late apoptotic cells, decreased ROS levels, restored mitochondrial membrane potential, and downregulated JNK phosphorylation after H₂O₂ exposure. In LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells, FMU200 reduced TNF-α levels after a 3 h treatment. FMU200 protects neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells against 6-OHDA- and H₂O₂-induced apoptosis, which may result from suppressing the JNK pathways. Our findings show that FMU200 can be a useful candidate for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders.

Unravelling the Dermatological Potential of the Brown Seaweed Carpomitra costata

The ever-increasing interest in keeping a young appearance and healthy skin has leveraged the skincare industry. This, coupled together with the increased concern regarding the safety of synthetic products, has boosted the demand for new and safer natural ingredients. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to evaluate the dermatological potential of the brown seaweed Carpomitra costata. The antioxidant, anti-enzymatic, antimicrobial, photoprotective and anti-inflammatory properties of five C. costata fractions (F1-F5) were evaluated. The ethyl acetate fraction (F3) demonstrated the most promising results, with the best ability to scavenge 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radicals (EC50 of 140.1 µg/mL) and the capacity to reduce reactive oxygen species (ROS) production promoted by UVA and UVB radiation in 3T3 cells, revealing its antioxidant and photoprotective potential. This fraction also exhibited the highest anti-enzymatic capacity, inhibiting the activities of collagenase, elastase and tyrosinase (IC50 of 7.2, 4.8 and 85.9 µg/mL, respectively). Moreover, F3 showed anti-inflammatory potential, reducing TNF-α and IL-6 release induced by LPS treatment in RAW 264.7 cells. These bioactivities may be related to the presence of phenolic compounds, such as phlorotannins, as demonstrated by NMR analysis. The results highlight the potential of C. costata as a source of bioactive ingredients for further dermatological applications.

Unravelling the Dermatological Potential of the Brown Seaweed Carpomitra costata

The ever-increasing interest in keeping a young appearance and healthy skin has leveraged the skincare industry. This, coupled together with the increased concern regarding the safety of synthetic products, has boosted the demand for new and safer natural ingredients. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to evaluate the dermatological potential of the brown seaweed Carpomitra costata. The antioxidant, anti-enzymatic, antimicrobial, photoprotective and anti-inflammatory properties of five C. costata fractions (F1–F5) were evaluated. The ethyl acetate fraction (F3) demonstrated the most promising results, with the best ability to scavenge 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radicals (EC50 of 140.1 µg/mL) and the capacity to reduce reactive oxygen species (ROS) production promoted by UVA and UVB radiation in 3T3 cells, revealing its antioxidant and photoprotective potential. This fraction also exhibited the highest anti-enzymatic capacity, inhibiting the activities of collagenase, elastase and tyrosinase (IC50 of 7.2, 4.8 and 85.9 µg/mL, respectively). Moreover, F3 showed anti-inflammatory potential, reducing TNF-α and IL-6 release induced by LPS treatment in RAW 264.7 cells. These bioactivities may be related to the presence of phenolic compounds, such as phlorotannins, as demonstrated by NMR analysis. The results highlight the potential of C. costata as a source of bioactive ingredients for further dermatological applications.

Trehalose and N-Acetyl Cysteine Alleviate Inflammatory Cytokine Production and Oxidative Stress in LPS-Stimulated Human Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells

Background: Evidence has shown that inflammation and oxidative stress are implicated in the development of a great number of human diseases. Trehalose possesses various biological effects including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. However, there is little data on the effects of trehalose on human cells including peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Here, we aimed to investigate whether trehalose could attenuate oxidative stress and inflammation induced by lipopolysaccharides (LPS) in PBMCs.Methods: The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and RT-PCR were used to assess the levels of inflammatory cytokines. To investigate the phosphorylation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and NF-κB, western blot analysis was utilized. Oxidant-antioxidant markers were assessed using ELISA and colorimetric procedures.Results: The results revealed that trehalose significantly mitigated the effect of LPS on the phosphorylation of JNK and NF-κB-P65 (p < .00). This mitigation was associated with significantly reduced levels of inflammatory cytokines IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1β and increased levels of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 (P < .05). The antioxidant N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) also showed similar effects on JNK and NF-κB-P65 phosphorylation and inflammatory cytokines (p < .00). Furthermore, trehalose alleviated oxidative stress in LPS-stimulated PBMCs as it reversed the altered levels of malondialdehyde and total thiols (p ≤ .05) and restored the activity of antioxidant enzymes glutathione peroxidase and manganese superoxide dismutase (p < .001).Conclusion: The results of this study indicated that trehalose prevented inflammation and oxidative stress in the LPS-stimulated PBMCs, providing evidence for the benefits of trehalose as a potential therapeutic agent in inflammatory conditions.Abbreviations: LPS: Lipopolysaccharide; NAC: N-Acetyl cysteine; ROS: Reactive oxygen species; IL-6: Interleukin-6; TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha; SOD: Superoxide dismutase; GPx: Glutathione peroxidase; MDA: Malondialdehyde; MAPK: Mitogen-activated protein kinases; JNK: c-Jun N-terminal kinase; NF-κB: Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells.

Anti-inflammatory activity and mechanism of action of ethanolic leaf extract of Morinda lucida Benth

Background and aim

Most developing countries resort to medicinal plants for treating diseases, but few of these have scientific backing for their use. The aim of the study was to validate traditional use of Morinda lucida leaves in treating inflammation and determine the mechanism of action.

Experimental procedure

Effect of hydroethanolic leaf extract of M. lucida (HEML) on localized inflammation was evaluated using rat paw edema presented by sub-planter injections of λ-carrageenan, histamine or serotonin in separate experiments. Systemic inflammation was evaluated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced hyperthermia. Antioxidant activity of HEML was also evaluated using the free-radical scavenging assay.

Results and conclusion

No mortalities were recorded in acute toxicity assay after administering 5000 mg/kg HEML to rats. It showed very good activity against localized and systemic inflammation in inverse dose-dependent manner and caused reduction in nitric oxide and prostaglandin E−2 levels by affecting expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase, but not cyclooxygenases-2 in LPS-activated RAW 264.7 murine macrophages. HEML reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β and tumor necrotic factor, but elevated levels of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 in vitro. HEML contains saponins, reducing sugars, polyphenols and flavonoids and showed antioxidant activity with EC₅₀ = 0.6415 ± 0.0027 mg/ml. In conclusion, this study provides evidence that HEML possesses anti-inflammatory activity, possibly through modulation of production of early/late phase inflammation mediators.

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HEML has anti-inflammatory effect, comparable to diclofenac.

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Mechanism of action may be via minimizing levels of pro-inflammatory mediators.

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HEML reduced NO levels via inhibition of iNOS expression.

Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans Extract Suppresses Inflammatory and Neuropathic Pain In Vitro and In Vivo

Background

Sciatic nerve injury develops from a variety of pathological causes, including traumatic injury and neuroinflammatory disorders, which are accompanied by pathological changes that have a critical impact on neuropathic pain and locomotor activity. Extracts of Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans (SSM) are used in traditional medicine for the treatment of a wide range of neuropathic diseases, including lower back pain, peripheral neuropathy, and sciatic nerve injury. Although SSM shows anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and anticonvulsant activities, its diverse mechanisms of action remain unclear. Thus, the present study examined the effects of SSM in vitro and in vivo.

Methods

To estimate the anti-inflammatory effects of SSM, inflammatory conditions were induced using lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in RAW 264.7 cells, and inflammatory-related factors were evaluated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and western blotting analyses. Sciatic nerve crush injury (SNCI) was induced in rats using a surgical clip instrument. The effects of SSM in the SNCI model were evaluated in behavioral tests by calculating the sciatic functional index (SFI) and measuring thermal hyperalgesia sensitivity and by monitoring inflammatory factors expression in western blotting analyses.

Results

We observed the anti-inflammatory effects of SSM treatment both in vitro and in vivo. The PGE₂ and NO production were suppressed by SSM. Protein analyses indicated that expression of NF-κB and degradation of IκBα were suppressed by SSM treatment. In addition, the levels of iNOS, TNF-α, IL-6, and COX-2 expression were reduced by SSM treatment in RAW 264.7 cells and in the SNCI-induced animals. In behavioral studies, SSM treatment enhanced the SFI and improved the thermal sensitivity test results.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that SSM suppresses the production of inflammatory factors via the NF-κB pathway and accelerates the morphological and functional recovery of the peripheral nervous system. Hence, SSM may be a useful therapeutic candidate for treatment of neuropathic pain diseases.