The burden of TB-HIV in the EU: how much do we know? A survey of surveillance practices and results

Barriers and enablers to implementing tuberculosis control strategies in EU and European Economic Area countries: a systematic review

Meeting the 2035 WHO targets of reducing tuberculosis incidence by 90% from 2015 levels requires the implementation of country-specific tuberculosis control strategies. This systematic review aims to identify factors that facilitate or impede the implementation of such strategies in EU and European Economic Area (EEA) settings. Focusing on providers of care, health system constraints, and social and political factors, this Review complements available evidence on the accessibility of tuberculosis services to recipients of care. Databases were searched for EU and EEA articles published between Jan 1, 1997, and Nov 6, 2020, that presented empirical data on tuberculosis policies, strategies, guidelines, or interventions. 2061 articles were screened and 65 were included. The most common barrier to tuberculosis control strategies described the divergence of health-care practices from guidelines, often related to inadequate knowledge or perceived usefulness of the guidelines by clinicians. The most commonly identified enabler to tuberculosis control strategies was the documented positive attitudes of health-care workers towards tuberculosis programmes. Divergence between clinical practice and guidelines was described in most EU and EEA settings, indicating the need for a focused review of guideline adherence. Strengths of this study involve its broad inclusion criteria and wide range of tuberculosis control strategies analysed.

Tuberculosis and HIV coinfection in Europe: looking at one reality from two angles

Objective:

To better understand the epidemiology of tuberculosis (TB)/HIV coinfection in the European Union (EU) and European Economic Area (EEA) for planning of prevention and control measures.

Design:

Analysis of surveillance data.

Methods:

We performed an analysis of the 2014 TB and AIDS data to assess the burden of TB/HIV coinfection and we applied multivariable logistic regression to evaluate predictors for coinfection.

Results:

Twenty-one of 31 EU/EEA countries reported HIV testing results for 64.6% of the 32 892 notified TB cases. Of those, 1051 (4.9%) were reported as HIV-positive. Males [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 1.25; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.07–1.46] and those in age group 25–44 years were more frequently coinfected. TB cases originating from the WHO African region had the highest proportion of coinfection (aOR 3.28 versus origin in EU/EEA; 95% CI 2.35–4.57). TB treatment was completed successfully by 57.9% of HIV-positive TB cases and 83.5% of HIV-negative cases. In 2014, 3863 cases of AIDS were reported by 29 EU/EEA countries; 691 (17.9%) of these cases presented with TB as an AIDS-defining illness. Persons who had acquired HIV through injecting drug use had higher odds of TB as an AIDS-defining illness (aOR 1.78 versus heterosexual route of transmission; 95% CI 1.37–2.32).

Conclusion:

TB/HIV coinfection is a substantial problem in the EU/EEA. The occurrence of TB in HIV-positive cases and the low TB treatment success rate suggest that international guidelines for prevention and treatment of TB in HIV-infected adults need to be better implemented.

Recent developments in the diagnosis and management of tuberculosis

Tuberculosis (TB) is a major public health issue worldwide, with ~9.6 million new incident cases and 1.5 million deaths in 2014. The End-TB Strategy launched by the World Health Organization in the context of the post-2015 agenda aims to markedly abate the scourge of TB towards global elimination, by improving current diagnostic and therapeutic practices, promoting preventative interventions, stimulating government commitment and increased financing, and intensifying research and innovation. The emergence and spread of multidrug-resistant strains is currently among the greatest concerns, which may hinder the achievement of future goals. It is crucial that primary healthcare providers are sufficiently familiar with the basic principles of TB diagnosis and care, to ensure early case detection and prompt referral to specialised centres for treatment initiation and follow-up. Given their special relationship with patients, they are in the best position to promote educational interventions and identify at-risk individuals as well as to improve adherence to treatment.

Impact of HIV infection on treatment outcome of tuberculosis in Europe

BACKGROUND

The effect of HIV on tuberculosis (TB) treatment outcomes has not been well established. We aimed to assess the impact of HIV infection on TB treatment outcomes by using data from notifiable disease surveillance in Europe.

METHODS

We analyzed the treatment outcomes of TB cases reported from nine European countries during 2010-2012. We investigate the effect of HIV on TB treatment outcomes using a multilevel and a multinomial logistic model, and considering the interaction between HIV and multidrug-resistant (MDR) TB.

RESULTS

A total of 61,138 TB cases including 5.5% HIV-positive were eligible for our analysis. In the multilevel model adjusted for age and an interaction with MDR TB, HIV was significantly associated with lower treatment success in all MDR strata [non-MDR TB: odds ratio (OR) 0.24 CI (confidence interval) 0.20-0.29; unknown MDR TB status: OR 0.26 CI 0.23-0.30; MDR TB: OR 0.57 CI 0.35-0.91]. In the multinomial regression model, HIV-positive cases had significantly higher relative risk ratio (RRR) for death (non-MDR TB: RRR 4.30 CI 2.31-7.99; unknown MDR TB status: 5.55 CI 3.10-9.92; MDR TB: 3.59 CI 1.56-8.28) and being 'still on treatment' (non-MDR TB: RRR 7.27 CI 3.00-17.6; unknown MDR TB status: 5.36 CI 2.44-11.8; MDR TB: 3.76 CI 2.48-5.71). We did not find any significant association between HIV and TB treatment failure (non-MDR TB: RRR 0.50 CI 0.15-1.67; unknown MDR TB status: 1.51 CI 0.86-2.64; MDR TB: 0.51 CI 0.13-1.87).

CONCLUSION

This large study confirms that HIV is a strong risk factor for an adverse TB treatment outcome, which is mainly manifested by an increased risk of death and still being on TB treatment.

Effect of study design and setting on tuberculosis clustering estimates using Mycobacterial Interspersed Repetitive Units-Variable Number Tandem Repeats (MIRU-VNTR): a systematic review

OBJECTIVES

To systematically review the evidence for the impact of study design and setting on the interpretation of tuberculosis (TB) transmission using clustering derived from Mycobacterial Interspersed Repetitive Units-Variable Number Tandem Repeats (MIRU-VNTR) strain typing.

DATA SOURCES

MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINHAL, Web of Science and Scopus were searched for articles published before 21st October 2014.

REVIEW METHODS

Studies in humans that reported the proportion of clustering of TB isolates by MIRU-VNTR were included in the analysis. Univariable meta-regression analyses were conducted to assess the influence of study design and setting on the proportion of clustering.

RESULTS

The search identified 27 eligible articles reporting clustering between 0% and 63%. The number of MIRU-VNTR loci typed, requiring consent to type patient isolates (as a proxy for sampling fraction), the TB incidence and the maximum cluster size explained 14%, 14%, 27% and 48% of between-study variation, respectively, and had a significant association with the proportion of clustering.

CONCLUSIONS

Although MIRU-VNTR typing is being adopted worldwide there is a paucity of data on how study design and setting may influence estimates of clustering. We have highlighted study design variables for consideration in the design and interpretation of future studies.

Tuberculosis among migrant populations in the European Union and the European Economic Area

Background: Although tuberculosis (TB) incidence has been decreasing in the European Union/European Economic Area (EU/EEA) in the last decades, specific subgroups of the population, such as migrants, remain at high risk of TB. This study is based on the report ‘Key Infectious Diseases in Migrant Populations in the EU/EEA’ commissioned by The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Methods: We collected, critically appraised and summarized the available evidence on the TB burden in migrants in the EU/EEA. Data were collected through: (i) a comprehensive literature review; (ii) analysis of data from The European Surveillance System (TESSy) and (iii) evidence provided by TB experts during an infectious disease workshop in 2012. Results: In 2010, of the 73 996 TB cases notified in the EU/EEA, 25% were of foreign origin. The overall decrease of TB cases observed in recent years has not been reflected in migrant populations. Foreign-born people with TB exhibit different socioeconomic and clinical characteristics than native sufferers. Conclusion: This is one of the first studies to use multiple data sources, including the largest available European database on infectious disease notifications, to assess the burden and provide a comprehensive description and analysis of specific TB features in migrants in the EU/EEA. Strengthened information about health determinants and factors for migrants’ vulnerability is needed to plan, implement and evaluate targeted TB care and control interventions for migrants in the EU/EEA.

HIV prevalence in the Israeli tuberculosis cohort, 1999-2011

Background

Tuberculosis (TB) patients who are co-infected with HIV are at greater risk of mortality. Nevertheless, not all countries achieved sustainable and TB and HIV collaboration to describe the burden of both diseases at a national scale. This study aims to describe HIV prevalence among TB-patients in Israel and identify variable associated with TB/HIV co-infection.

Methods

This retrospective study was conducted by cross-matching the National HIV and TB Registries to describe TB/HIV epidemiology during the last 13-years and define variables predicting TB/HIV co-infection.

Results

Between 1999 and 2011, 5,502 TB-patients were reported: 779 (14.2%) were Israeli-born and 4,723 (85.8%) non-Israeli born. Of all TB patients, 254 (4.6%) were HIV-infected. The trend of HIV/TB co-infection among non-Israeli born has generally decreased since 2003 (trend analysis p < 0.001).

TB/HIV co-infected patients were mostly males, their TB diagnosis had been performed relatively in shorter time following their arrival in Israel, more likely to be in the 35–44 and 25–34 age groups, non-Israeli born (mostly Africa born), more likely to be culture positive, have multi-drug resistant strains, had worse treatment outcomes and more likely to die treatment than HIV-negative tuberculosis patient. In a multivariate analysis, short time after arrival in Israel, older age, being born in Ethiopia, having positive sputum, positive culture and multi-drug resistant TB predicted TB/HIV co-infection.

TB/HIV co-infected patients with extra-pulmonary TB had a higher proportion of infection in lymphatic, miliary and abdominal sites than those with extra-pulmonary TB who were HIV-negative.

Conclusions

Most TB/HIV co-infected patients were migrants originating in high-burden countries. Despite the moderate 4.6% TB/HIV co-infection rate in Israel, these patients had worse treatment outcomes and higher mortality rates. This study illustrates the importance of integrating TB with HIV in surveillance and treatment components, which should be employed in other countries, as it has a positive impact on disease control.

HIV testing of patients diagnosed with tuberculosis increased in Denmark during the period from 2007 to 2009

We examined the trends of HIV testing among patients notified with TB in Denmark during a 3-year period from 2007 to 2009. We were able to obtain HIV testing status for 96%. There was a significant increase of patients examined for HIV infection during the 3-year period. HIV prevalence among HIV-tested TB patients in Denmark is much higher than in the average population. It seems there is an increasing awareness in Denmark towards testing TB cases for HIV co-infection.

Tuberculosis incidence in HIV/AIDS patients in Israel, 1983-2010

Objectives

People living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) who develop tuberculosis disease are at greater mortality-risk. This study aimed to assess tuberculosis disease incidence among all PLWHA in Israel and identify populations at high-risk for developing tuberculosis.

Design and Methods

Retrospective cohort-study based on the National HIV and Tuberculosis Registries, which were cross-matched and followed for the last 28-years. PLWHA who developed tuberculosis were compared to those who did not by the Cox-proportional analysis to generate hazard-ratios, and survival-analysis was performed by Log-Rank test.

Results

Of all the 6579 PLWHA reported between 1983 and 2010, corresponding to 55737 person-years, 384 (5.8%) developed tuberculosis. Of those, 14 were Israeli-born and 370 were non-Israeli born. The overall tuberculosis incidence-density was 6.9 cases/1000 person-years (95% CI 1.8–12.0). The cumulative tuberculosis-incidence among PLWHA in 2010 was 586 times higher than in HIV-negative individuals (3400 and 5.8 cases per 100000 population, respectively). Higher hazard-ratios to developing tuberculosis were found in migrant citizens PLWHA who were males, non-Israeli born, those who were diagnosed with HIV/AIDS after 1997, those who originated in high-tuberculosis prevalence country and those who acquired HIV by heterosexual or drug-injection transmission. PLWHA who developed tuberculosis had higher odds of dying than other PLWHA (36.5% and 16.6%, respectively, p<0.001, odds ratio = 2.8, 95% confidence-interval 2.3–3.6). In survival-analysis, time to develop tuberculosis was shorter among males than females, in PLWHA who were reported with HIV after 1997, in heterosexual who originated in high-tuberculosis countries, followed by injecting drug-users, heterosexual from low-tuberculosis burden countries and men who have sex with men.

Conclusion

Tuberculosis-incidence is higher among non-Israeli born PLWHA, with decreasing trends from 1991. Despite the moderate TB-rate disease among PLWHA, it remains an important cause for severe morbidity and mortality. Tuberculosis in PLWHA reflects mainly the tuberculosis-burden in the originating country and possibly also the mode of HIV-transmission.

Decreasing incidence of tuberculosis among heterosexuals living with diagnosed HIV in England and Wales

OBJECTIVES

To calculate annual tuberculosis incidence rates, and investigate risk factors for tuberculosis, among heterosexual adults living with diagnosed HIV in England and Wales.

DESIGN

Analyses of comprehensive national records of persons seen for HIV care between 2002 and 2010 linked to the national tuberculosis database (1999-2010) for England and Wales.

METHODS

Annual incidence rates of tuberculosis among heterosexual adults living with diagnosed HIV were calculated on the basis of the number of heterosexual adults seen for HIV care in a given year and the number, in that same year, with a first episode of tuberculosis at the time of, or subsequent to, their HIV diagnosis.

RESULTS

Between 2002 and 2010, almost one in 10 (4266/45,322) heterosexual adults living with HIV were diagnosed with tuberculosis, of whom the majority (92%) were diagnosed at the time of, or after, their HIV diagnosis; 84% (3307) were black African. The annual tuberculosis incidence rate decreased from 30 per 1000 in 2002 to 8.8 per 1000 in 2010 (P < 0.01). The annual tuberculosis incidence rate among those not on antiretroviral therapy (ART) was significantly higher than among those using ART (2010: 36 versus 3 per 1000; P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

The annual tuberculosis incidence rate among heterosexual adults living with diagnosed HIV in England and Wales has declined significantly over the past decade. However, the 2010 rate remains significantly higher than in the general population. Our findings support routine HIV testing in tuberculosis clinics, screening for latent tuberculosis in HIV diagnosed persons, and the prompt initiation of ART where appropriate.

HIV-prevalence in tuberculosis patients in Germany, 2002-2009: an estimation based on HIV and tuberculosis surveillance data

Tuberculosis (TB) and HIV comorbidity is a major challenge in TB prevention and control but difficult to assess in Germany as in other countries, where data confidentiality precludes notifying the HIV status of TB patients. We aimed to estimate the HIV-prevalence in TB patients in Germany, 2002-2009, and to characterize the HIV/TB patients demographically. Data from the long-term observational open multicentre cohort ClinSurv HIV were used to identify incident TB in HIV-positive individuals. We assessed the cohort's coverage for the nationwide HIV-positive population by contrasting ClinSurv HIV patients under antiretroviral therapy (ART) with national HIV patient numbers derived from ART prescriptions (data by Insight Health; available for 2006-2009). The HIV-prevalence in TB patients was calculated as the number of HIV/TB cases projected for Germany over all culture-positive TB notifications. From 2002 to 2009, 298 of 15,531 HIV-positive patients enrolled in the ClinSurv HIV cohort were diagnosed with TB. A 21% cohort coverage was determined. The annual estimates of the HIV-prevalence in TB patients were on average 4.5% and ranged from 3.5% (95%CI 2.3-5.1%) in 2007 to 6.6% (95%CI 5.0-8.5%) in 2005. The most recent estimate for 2009 was 4.0% (95%CI 2.6-5.9%). The 298 HIV/TB patients were characterized by a male-to-female ratio of 2.1, by a median age of 38 years at TB diagnosis, and by 59% of the patients having a foreign origin, mainly from Subsahara Africa. We provide, to our knowledge, the first estimate of the HIV-prevalence in TB patients for Germany by joint evaluation of anonymous HIV and TB surveillance data sources. The identified level of HIV in TB patients approximates available surveillance data from neighbouring countries and indicates a non-negligible HIV/TB burden in Germany. Our estimation approach is valuable for epidemiological monitoring of HIV/TB within the current legal frameworks.

European union standards for tuberculosis care

The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) and the European Respiratory Society (ERS) jointly developed European Union Standards for Tuberculosis Care (ESTC) aimed at providing European Union (EU)-tailored standards for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of tuberculosis (TB). The International Standards for TB Care (ISTC) were developed in the global context and are not always adapted to the EU setting and practices. The majority of EU countries have the resources and capacity to implement higher standards to further secure quality TB diagnosis, treatment and prevention. On this basis, the ESTC were developed as standards specifically tailored to the EU setting. A panel of 30 international experts, led by a writing group and the ERS and ECDC, identified and developed the 21 ESTC in the areas of diagnosis, treatment, HIV and comorbid conditions, and public health and prevention. The ISTCs formed the basis for the 21 standards, upon which additional EU adaptations and supplements were developed. These patient-centred standards are targeted to clinicians and public health workers, providing an easy-to-use resource, guiding through all required activities to ensure optimal diagnosis, treatment and prevention of TB. These will support EU health programmes to identify and develop optimal procedures for TB care, control and elimination.