Impact of hypernatremia on patients with severe traumatic brain injury

Initial dysnatremia and clinical outcomes in pediatric traumatic brain injury: a multicenter observational study

PURPOSE

We aimed to investigate the association between initial dysnatremia (hyponatremia and hypernatremia) and in-hospital mortality, as well as between initial dysnatremia and functional outcomes, among children with traumatic brain injury (TBI).

METHOD

We performed a multicenter observational study among 26 pediatric intensive care units from January 2014 to August 2022. We recruited children with TBI under 18 years of age who presented to participating sites within 24 h of injury. We compared demographics and clinical characteristics between children with initial hyponatremia and eu-natremia and between those with initial hypernatremia and eu-natremia. We defined poor functional outcome as a discharge Pediatric Cerebral Performance Category (PCPC) score of moderate, severe disability, coma, and death, or an increase of at least 2 categories from baseline. We performed multivariable logistic regression for mortality and poor PCPC outcome.

RESULTS

Among 648 children, 84 (13.0%) and 42 (6.5%) presented with hyponatremia and hypernatremia, respectively. We observed fewer 14-day ventilation-free days between those with initial hyponatremia [7.0 (interquartile range (IQR) = 0.0-11.0)] and initial hypernatremia [0.0 (IQR = 0.0-10.0)], compared to eu-natremia [9.0 (IQR = 4.0-12.0); p = 0.006 and p < 0.001]. We observed fewer 14-day ICU-free days between those with initial hyponatremia [3.0 (IQR = 0.0-9.0)] and initial hypernatremia [0.0 (IQR = 0.0-3.0)], compared to eu-natremia [7.0 (IQR = 0.0-11.0); p = 0.006 and p < 0.001]. After adjusting for age, severity, and sex, presenting hyponatremia was associated with in-hospital mortality [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 2.47, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.31-4.66, p = 0.005] and poor outcome (aOR = 1.67, 95% CI = 1.01-2.76, p = 0.045). After adjustment, initial hypernatremia was associated with mortality (aOR = 5.91, 95% CI = 2.85-12.25, p < 0.001) and poor outcome (aOR = 3.00, 95% CI = 1.50-5.98, p = 0.002).

CONCLUSION

Among children with TBI, presenting dysnatremia was associated with in-hospital mortality and poor functional outcome, particularly hypernatremia. Future research should investigate longitudinal sodium measurements in pediatric TBI and their association with clinical outcomes.

Diagnosis and treatment of brain injury complicated by hypernatremia

Hypernatremia is a common electrolyte disorder in patients with brain injury. The mortality of brain injury patients with severe hypernatremia may be as high as 86.8%. The efficacy of conventional treatment for hypernatremia is limited. Continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) can slowly, controllably, and continuously reduce the blood sodium concentration and gradually become an important treatment for severe hypernatremia patients. This review aims to provide important information for clinicians and clinical researchers by describing the etiology, diagnosis, hazards, conventional treatment, and CRRT treatment of hypernatremia in patients with traumatic brain injury.

Serum electrolyte imbalance and prognostic factors of postoperative death in adult traumatic brain injury patients: A prospective cohort study

Electrolyte imbalances are common in traumatic brain injury. It shares the cause of perioperative morbidity and mortality. Types of intravenous fluid resuscitation, osmotic diuretics, massive blood loss, and intracranial pathology were considered as the potential factors to worsen electrolyte abnormalities in these patients. The aims of this study were to report the incidence of electrolyte imbalance in traumatic brain injured patients and to assess the association between electrolyte imbalance and other prognostic factors to death within 24 hours of the injury.The study was carried out in the northern university, tertiary-care hospital of Thailand. The patients aged from 18 to 65 years old, presented with traumatic brain injury, and needed for emergency craniotomy were included. We excluded the patients who had minor neurosurgical procedures, pregnancy, and undergone cardiopulmonary resuscitation from the Emergency Department.Among 145 patients recruited, 101 (70%) had Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score ≤ 8, 25 (17%) had GCS score 9 to 12, and 19 (13%) had GCS score 13 to 15. The most common diagnosis were subdural hematoma and epidural hematoma, 51% and 36%, respectively. Hypokalemia was the most common electrolyte imbalance at 65.5%. The results of the use of a multivariable logistic regression model show that the odds of postoperative death in TBI patients were increased with high levels of blood glucose, hypernatremia, and acidosis.Hypokalemia was the most common electrolyte imbalance in TBI patients. Hypernatremia, acidosis, and hyperglycemia significantly increased the odds ratio of death in the first 24 hours post TBI.

Morbidity and mortality associated with hypernatremia in patients with severe traumatic brain injury

OBJECTIVE

Hypernatremia is independently associated with increased mortality in critically ill patients. Few studies have evaluated the impact of hypernatremia on early mortality in patients with severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) treated in a neurocritical care unit.

METHODS

A retrospective review of patients with severe TBI (admission Glasgow Coma Scale score ≤ 8) treated in a single neurocritical care unit between 1986 and 2012 was performed. Patients with at least 3 serum sodium values were selected for the study. Patients with diabetes insipidus and those with hypernatremia on admission were excluded. The highest serum sodium level during the hospital stay was recorded, and hypernatremia was classified as none (≤ 150 mEq/L), mild (151–155 mEq/L), moderate (156–160 mEq/L), and severe (> 160 mEq/L). Multivariate Cox regression analysis was performed to determine independent predictors of early mortality.

RESULTS

A total of 588 patients with severe TBI were studied. The median number of serum sodium measurements for patients in this study was 17 (range 3–190). No hypernatremia was seen in 371 patients (63.1%), mild hypernatremia in 77 patients (13.1%), moderate hypernatremia in 50 patients (8.5%), and severe hypernatremia in 90 patients (15.3%). Hypernatremia was detected within the 1st week of admission in 79.3% of patients (n = 172), with the majority of patients (46%) being diagnosed within 72 hours after admission. Acute kidney injury, defined as a rise in creatinine of ≥ 0.3 mg/dl, was observed in 162 patients (27.6%) and was significantly associated with the degree of hypernatremia (p < 0.001). At discharge, 148 patients (25.2%) had died. Hypernatremia was a significant independent predictor of mortality (hazard ratios for mild: 3.4, moderate: 4.4, and severe: 8.4; p < 0.001). Survival analysis showed significantly lower survival rates for patients with greater degrees of hypernatremia (log-rank test, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Hypernatremia after admission in patients with severe TBI was independently associated with greater risk of early mortality. In addition to severe hypernatremia, mild and moderate hypernatremia were significantly associated with increased early mortality in patients with severe TBI.

The effect of continuous hypertonic saline infusion and hypernatremia on mortality in patients with severe traumatic brain injury: a retrospective cohort study

PURPOSE

Hypertonic saline (HTS) is used to control intracranial pressure (ICP) in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI); however, in prior studies, the resultant hypernatremia has been associated with increased mortality. We aimed to study the effect of HTS on ICP and mortality in patients with severe TBI.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective cohort study of 231 patients with severe TBI (Glasgow Coma Scale [GCS] ≤ 8) admitted to two neurotrauma units from 2006-2012. We recorded daily HTS, ICP, and serum sodium (Na) concentration. We used Cox proportional regression modelling for hospital mortality and incorporated the following time-dependent variables: use of HTS, hypernatremia, and desmopressin administration.

RESULTS

The mean [standard deviation (SD)] age of patients was 34 (17) and the median (interquartile range [IQR]) GCS was 6 [3-8]. Hypertonic saline was administered as a continuous infusion in 124 of 231 (54%) patients over 788 of 2,968 (27%) patient-days. Hypernatremia (Na > 145 mmol·L(-1)) developed in 151 of 231 (65%) patients over 717 of 2,968 (24%) patients-days. In patients who developed hypernatremia, the median [IQR] Na was 146 [142-147] mmol·L(-1). Overall hospital mortality was 26% (59 of 231 patients). After adjusting for baseline covariates, neither HTS (hazard ratio [HR], 1.07; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.56 to 2.05; P = 0.84) nor hypernatremia (HR, 1.31; 95% CI, 0.68 to 2.55; P = 0.42) was associated with hospital mortality. There was no effect modification by either HTS or hypernatremia on each another. Patients who received HTS observed a significant decrease in ICP during their ICU stay compared with those who did not receive HTS (4 mmHg; 95% CI, 2 to 6; P < 0.001 vs 2 mmHg; 95% CI, -1 to 5; P = 0.14).

CONCLUSIONS

Hypertonic saline and hypernatremia are not associated with hospital mortality in patients with severe TBI.

Hypernatremia in patients with severe traumatic brain injury: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Hypernatremia is common following traumatic brain injury (TBI) and occurs from a variety of mechanisms, including hyperosmotic fluids, limitation of free water, or diabetes insipidus. The purpose of this systematic review was to assess the relationship between hypernatremia and mortality in patients with TBI.

METHODS

We searched the following databases up to November 2012: MEDLINE, EMBASE, and CENTRAL. Using a combination of MeSH and text terms, we developed search filters for the concepts of hypernatremia and TBI and included studies that met the following criteria: (1) compared hypernatremia to normonatremia, (2) adult patients with TBI, (3) presented adjusted outcomes for mortality or complications.

RESULTS

Bibliographic and conference search yielded 1,152 citations and 11 abstracts, respectively. Sixty-five articles were selected for full-text review with 5 being included in our study. All were retrospective cohort studies totaling 5,594 (range 100-4,296) patients. There was marked between-study heterogeneity. The incidence of hypernatremia ranged between 16% and 40%. Use of hyperosmolar therapy was presented in three studies (range 14-85% of patients). Hypernatremia was associated with increased mortality across all four studies that presented this outcome. Only one study considered diabetes insipidus (DI) in their analysis where hypernatremia was associated with increased mortality in patients who did not receive DDAVP.

CONCLUSIONS

Although hypernatremia was associated with increased mortality in the included studies, there was marked between-study heterogeneity. DI was a potential confounder in several studies. Considering these limitations, the clinical significance of hypernatremia in TBI is difficult to establish at this stage.