Effects in cigarette smoke stimulated bronchial epithelial cells of a corticosteroid entrapped into nanostructured lipid carriers

Sustained-Release Powders Based on Polymer Particles for Pulmonary Delivery of Beclomethasone Dipropionate in the Treatment of Lung Inflammation

Inhaled corticosteroids are the mainstay in the management of lung inflammation associated to chronic lung diseases, such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Nonetheless, available inhalation products are mostly short-acting formulations that require frequent administrations and do not always produce the desired anti-inflammatory effects. In this work, the production of inhalable beclomethasone dipropionate (BDP) dry powders based on polymeric particles was attempted. As starting material, the PHEA-g-RhB-g-PLA-g-PEG copolymer was chosen, obtained by grafting 0.6, 2.4 and 3.0 mol%, respectively, of rhodamine (RhB), polylactic acid (PLA) and polyethylene glycol 5000 (PEG) on alpha,beta-poly(N-2-hydroxyethyl)DL-aspartamide (PHEA). The drug was loaded into the polymeric particles (MP) as an inclusion complex (CI) with hydroxypropyl-cyclodextrin (HP-β-Cyd) (at a stoichiometric ratio of 1:1) or as free form. The spray-drying (SD) process to produce MPs was optimized by keeping the polymer concentration (0.6 wt/vol%) constant in the liquid feed and by varying other parameters such as the drug concentration. The theoretical aerodynamic diameter (d_aer) values among the MPs are comparable and potentially suitable for inhalation, as confirmed also through evaluation of the experimental mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD_exp). BDP shows a controlled release profile from MPs that is significantly higher (more than tripled) than from Clenil^®. In vitro tests on bronchial epithelial cells (16HBE) and adenocarcinomic human alveolar basal epithelial cells (A549) showed that all the MP samples (empty or drug-loaded) were highly biocompatible. None of the systems used induced apoptosis or necrosis. Moreover, the BDP loaded into the particles (BDP-Micro and CI-Micro) was more efficient than free BDP to counteract the effects of cigarette smoke and LPS on release of IL-6 and IL-8.

Oxidative Stress, Environmental Pollution, and Lifestyle as Determinants of Asthma in Children

Exposure to cigarette smoke, allergens, viruses, and other environmental contaminants, as well as a detrimental lifestyle, are the main factors supporting elevated levels of airway oxidative stress. Elevated oxidative stress results from an imbalance in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and efficiency in antioxidant defense systems. Uncontrolled increased oxidative stress amplifies inflammatory processes and tissue damage and alters innate and adaptive immunity, thus compromising airway homeostasis. Oxidative stress events reduce responsiveness to corticosteroids. These events can increase risk of asthma into adolescence and prompt evolution of asthma toward its most severe forms. Development of new therapies aimed to restore oxidant/antioxidant balance and active interventions aimed to improve physical activity and quality/quantity of food are all necessary strategies to prevent asthma onset and avoid in asthmatics evolution toward severe forms of the disease.

Cellular and Molecular Signatures of Oxidative Stress in Bronchial Epithelial Cell Models Injured by Cigarette Smoke Extract

Exposure of the airways epithelium to environmental insults, including cigarette smoke, results in increased oxidative stress due to unbalance between oxidants and antioxidants in favor of oxidants. Oxidative stress is a feature of inflammation and promotes the progression of chronic lung diseases, including Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD). Increased oxidative stress leads to exhaustion of antioxidant defenses, alterations in autophagy/mitophagy and cell survival regulatory mechanisms, thus promoting cell senescence. All these events are amplified by the increase of inflammation driven by oxidative stress. Several models of bronchial epithelial cells are used to study the molecular mechanisms and the cellular functions altered by cigarette smoke extract (CSE) exposure, and to test the efficacy of molecules with antioxidant properties. This review offers a comprehensive synthesis of human in-vitro and ex-vivo studies published from 2011 to 2021 describing the molecular and cellular mechanisms evoked by CSE exposure in bronchial epithelial cells, the most used experimental models and the mechanisms of action of cellular antioxidants systems as well as natural and synthetic antioxidant compounds.

Neutrophil-Dependent Immunity During Pulmonary Infections and Inflammations

Rapid recruitment of neutrophils to an inflamed site is one of the hallmarks of an effective host defense mechanism. The main pathway through which this happens is by the innate immune response. Neutrophils, which play an important part in innate immune defense, migrate into lungs through the modulation actions of chemokines to execute a variety of pro-inflammatory functions. Despite the importance of chemokines in host immunity, little has been discussed on their roles in host immunity. A holistic understanding of neutrophil recruitment, pattern recognition pathways, the roles of chemokines and the pathophysiological roles of neutrophils in host immunity may allow for new approaches in the treatment of infectious and inflammatory disease of the lung. Herein, this review aims at highlighting some of the developments in lung neutrophil-immunity by focusing on the functions and roles of CXC/CC chemokines and pattern recognition receptors in neutrophil immunity during pulmonary inflammations. The pathophysiological roles of neutrophils in COVID-19 and thromboembolism have also been summarized. We finally summarized various neutrophil biomarkers that can be utilized as prognostic molecules in pulmonary inflammations and discussed various neutrophil-targeted therapies for neutrophil-driven pulmonary inflammatory diseases.

Interrelationships Between Oxidative Stress, Cytokines, and Psychotic Symptoms and Executive Functions in Patients With Chronic Schizophrenia

OBJECTIVE

Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that the pathophysiology of schizophrenia is involved in various abnormalities in oxidative stress markers and cytokines closely related to synaptic plasticity. However, the interactive effects among key cytokines, oxidative stress, and executive dysfunction and symptoms of schizophrenia have not been investigated yet.

METHODS

A total of 189 patients with chronic schizophrenia and 60 controls were recruited in the current study. Tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-8, IL-6, and IL-2 levels; catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities; and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were determined in patients and controls. Executive function was evaluated by the Wisconsin card sorting tests, the verbal fluency tests, and the Stroop word-color test. Clinical symptoms were evaluated by the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale.

RESULTS

Relative to the controls, the patients had lower activities of SOD and glutathione peroxidase and levels of TNF-α, but higher levels of MDA, IL-8, IL-6, and IL-2 (all p values < .05). A significant negative relationship between SOD activity and IL-8 levels was found only in patients (β = -0.44, p = .008). Furthermore, we found that an interactive effect of low TNF-α level and high MDA level was associated with negative symptoms (β = -0.02, p = .01). Moreover, the interactive effects of IL-8 and MDA or IL-8 and SOD were correlated with executive function only in patients (β = 0.23, p = .02; β = 0.09, p = .03).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that the interrelationships between oxidative stress markers and cytokines occur in schizophrenia patients, which may be the basis of their pathological mechanisms underlying clinical symptoms and cognitive dysfunction.

Advancing of Cellular Signaling Pathways in Respiratory Diseases Using Nanocarrier Based Drug Delivery Systems

Cell Signaling pathways form an integral part of our existence that allows the cells to comprehend a stimulus and respond back. Such reactions to external cues from the environment are required and are essential to regulate the normal functioning of our body. Abnormalities in the system arise when there are errors developed in these signals, resulting in a complication or a disease. Presently, respiratory diseases contribute to being the third leading cause of morbidity worldwide. According to the current statistics, over 339 million people are asthmatic, 65 million are suffering from COPD, 2.3 million are lung cancer patients and 10 million are tuberculosis patients. This toll of statistics with chronic respiratory diseases leaves a heavy burden on society and the nation's annual health expenditure. Hence, a better understanding of the processes governing these cellular pathways will enable us to treat and manage these deadly respiratory diseases effectively. Moreover, it is important to comprehend the synergy and interplay of the cellular signaling pathways in respiratory diseases, which will enable us to explore and develop suitable strategies for targeted drug delivery. This review, in particular, focuses on the major respiratory diseases and further provides an in-depth discussion on the various cell signaling pathways that are involved in the pathophysiology of respiratory diseases. Moreover, the review also analyses the defining concepts about advanced nano-drug delivery systems involving various nanocarriers and propose newer prospects to minimize the current challenges faced by researchers and formulation scientists.

MiR-21-5p regulates extracellular matrix degradation and angiogenesis in TMJOA by targeting Spry1

BACKGROUND

Due to the lack of research on the pathological mechanism of temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis (TMJOA), there are few effective treatment measures in the clinic. In recent years, microRNAs (miRs) have been demonstrated to play an important role in the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis (OA) by regulating a variety of target genes, and the latest evidence shows that miR-21-5p is specifically overexpressed in OA. The purpose of this project was to clarify whether miR-21-5p can regulate the TMJOA process by targeting Spry1.

METHODS

TMJOA was induced by a unilateral anterior crossbite (UAC) model, and the effect of miR-21-5p knockout on TMJOA was evaluated by toluidine blue (TB), immunohistochemical (IHC) staining, Western blotting (WB) and RT-qPCR. Primary mouse condylar chondrocytes (MCCs) were isolated, cultured and transfected with a series of mimics, inhibitors, siRNA-Spry1 or cDNA Spry1. WB, RT-qPCR, IHC and TB were used to detect the effect of miR-21-5p and its target gene Spry1 on the expression of MMP-13, VEGF and p-ERK1/2 in TMJOA. The effect of miR-21-5p on angiogenesis was evaluated by chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assay and WB.

RESULTS

In the UAC model, the cartilage thickness and extracellular matrix of miR-21-5p knockout mice were less damaged, and miR-21-5p and UAC model were shown to affect the expression of Spry1, IL-1β, MMP-13, and VEGF. Luciferase experiments confirmed that Spry1 was the direct target of miR-21-5p. The expression levels of Spry1, MMP-13, VEGF and p-ERK1/2 in MCCs transfected with miR-21-5p mimic were higher than those in the inhibitor group. Under the simulated inflammatory environment of IL-1β, the expression levels of MMP-13, VEGF and p-ERK1/2 were positively correlated with miR-21-5p, while Spry1 was negatively correlated with miR-21-5p. Inhibition of miR-21-5p expression and overexpression of Spry1 enhanced the inhibition of MMP-13, VEGF and p-ERK1/2 expression. MiR-21-5p had a significant role in promoting angiogenesis in the chick embryo CAM assay, and this role was clearly mediated by the ERK-MAPK signalling pathway.

CONCLUSION

This study verified that miR-21-5p can promote the process of TMJOA by targeting Spry1, which provides a new direction for future research on the treatment of this disease.

MiR-21 upregulation increases IL-8 expression and tumorigenesis program in airway epithelial cells exposed to cigarette smoke

BACKGROUND

Cigarette smoke exposure, increasing Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and reactive oxygen species (ROS), promotes inflammatory responses in airway epithelial cells. Chronic inflammation, microRNA (miRNA), and oxidative stress are associated with cancer development.

AIMS

The present study was aimed to explore whether cigarette smoke exposure, altering miR-21 expression, promoted inflammatory responses and tumorigenesis processes in airway epithelial cells.

METHODS

Airway normal and cancer epithelial cells (16HBE and A549) were exposed to cigarette smoke extracts (CSE) or with/without agomiR-21, and then it was assessed: a) miR-21 expression; b) signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) nuclear protein expression and ERK1/2 activation; c) IL-8 gene expression and protein release. An antagonist of TLR4 (CLI-095) and the antioxidant flavonoid, apigenin, were also included to evaluate miR-21 expression in CSE exposed cells.

RESULTS

It was demonstrated that: a) A549 cells constitutively expressed higher levels of miR-21 and IL-8; b) CSE increased STAT3 nuclear expression in 16HBE; c) in both cell lines, CSE and agomiR-21 increased: miR-21 expression; ERK1/2 activation and IL-8 gene expression and protein release; d) TLR4 inhibition counteracted the effects of CSE on miR-21 in A549; e) apigenin reduced miR-21 and IL-8 gene expression in both cell lines.

CONCLUSIONS

Data herein provided identified for the first time new mechanisms supporting the crucial role of cigarette smoke-induced miR-21 expression in the amplification of inflammatory responses and in tumorigenesis processes within the airways.

Anti-ICAM-1 antibody-modified nanostructured lipid carriers: a pulmonary vascular endothelium-targeted device for acute lung injury therapy

BACKGROUND

Acute lung injury (ALI) is a life-threatening clinical syndrome without effective treatment. Targeting delivery of glucocorticoid to lung shows potential efficacy for ALI based on their anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic properties, breaking through their clinical application limitation due to systemic side effects. This work was aimed to establish lung-targeted dexamethasone (DEX) loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) with opposite surface charge and investigate their therapeutic effects on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI mice.

RESULTS

The diameter of anionic anti-intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (anti-ICAM-1) antibody-conjugated DEX-loaded NLCs (ICAM/DEX/NLCs) and the cationic ones with octadecylamine (ODA) modification (ICAM/DEX/ODA-NLCs) was about 249.9 and 235.9 nm. The zeta potential of ICAM/DEX/NLCs and ICAM/DEX/ODA-NLCs was about - 30.3 and 37.4 mV, respectively. Relative to the non-targeted control and ICAM/DEX/ODA-NLCs, ICAM/DEX/NLCs exhibited higher in vitro cellular uptake in LPS-activated human vascular endothelial cell line EAhy926 after CAM-mediated endocytosis, and stronger in vivo pulmonary distribution in the ALI model mice. In vivo i.v. administration of ICAM/DEX/NLCs significantly attenuated pulmonary inflammatory cells infiltration, and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α and IL-6 in ALI mice. H&E stain also revealed positive histological improvements by ICAM/DEX/NLCs.

CONCLUSIONS

ICAM/DEX/NLCs may represent a potential pulmonary endothelium targeted device, which facilitate translation of DEX into clinical ALI treatment.

Possible mechanisms mediating apoptosis of bronchial epithelial cells in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease - A next-generation sequencing approach

PURPOSE

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a chronic inflammatory airway disease characterized by persistent airflow limitation. Apoptosis of pulmonary structural cells contributes to pulmonary destruction and dysfunction. This study aimed to explore the possible mechanisms underlying decreased cell proliferation and increased apoptosis of bronchial epithelial cells of COPD.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The expression profiles of mRNAs and microRNAs in bronchial epithelial cells from a COPD patient and a normal subject were identified using next-generation sequencing (NGS) and analyzed using bioinformatic tools.

RESULTS

We identified 233 significantly upregulated and 204 significantly downregulated genes in COPD bronchial epithelial cells. The PI3K-Akt pathway was one of the most important dysregulated pathways in bronchial epithelial cells. We further identified that 3 genes involved in the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, including IL6, F2R, and FGFR3, might be associated with inhibition of cell proliferation in bronchial epithelial cells, while 5 genes involved in the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, including TLR4, IL6, F2R, FGFR3, and FGFR1, might be associated with apoptosis of bronchial epithelial cells. FGFR1 was also a predicted target for some up-regulated miRNAs in COPD bronchial epithelial cells, including hsa-miR-195-5p, hsa-miR-424-5p, and hsa-miR-6724-5p.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest PI3K-Akt signaling pathway plays an important role in COPD. We observed altered expression of apoptosis and cell proliferation-related genes that might contribute to the pathogenesis of COPD.

Mucoadhesive solid lipid microparticles for controlled release of a corticosteroid in the chronic obstructive pulmonary disease treatment

Aim: Therapeutic efficacy of pulmonary diseases is often limited and drug delivery systems offer new solutions to clinical problems. Solid lipid microparticles (SLMs) are suggested as systems for the delivery of therapeutics to the lung as, because of their size, they are able to deposit into secondary bronchi. Materials & methods: Here, we describe two novel different SLMs using chitosan and alginate such as mucoadhesive polymers and we also studied their biocompatibility and their effectiveness compared with the free drug in controlling senescence and inflammatory processes in cigarette smoke extracts. Results: Data reported show that fluticasone propionate (FP)-loaded SLMs are more effective than FP alone in controlling oxidative stress. Conclusion: The therapeutic approach using FP-loaded microparticles could be a promising strategy for the treatment of the chronic inflammatory pulmonary diseases.

Polyaspartamide-Based Nanoparticles Loaded with Fluticasone Propionate and the In Vitro Evaluation towards Cigarette Smoke Effects

This paper describes the evaluation of polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) as a potential carrier for lung administration of fluticasone propionate (FP). The chosen polymeric material to produce NPs was a copolymer based on α,β-poly(N-2-hydroxyethyl)-d,l-aspartamide (PHEA) whose backbone was derivatised with different molecules, such as poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and polyethylenglycol (PEG). The chosen method to produce NPs from PHEA-PLA-PEG₂₀₀₀ was the method based on high-pressure homogenization and subsequent solvent evaporation by adding Pluronic F68 during the process and trehalose before lyophilisation. Obtained colloidal FP-loaded NPs showed a slightly negative surface charge and nanometric dimensions that are maintained after storage for one year at −20 °C and 5 °C. The FP loading was about 2.9 wt % and the drug was slowly released in simulated lung fluid. Moreover, the obtained NPs, containing the drug or not, were biocompatible and did not induce cell necrosis and cell apoptosis on bronchial epithelial cells (16-HBE). Further in vitro testing on cigarette smoke extract (CSE)-stimulated 16-HBE revealed that FP-loaded NPs were able to reduce the survivin expression, while either free FP or empty NPs were not able to significantly reduce this effect.

Formoterol and fluticasone propionate combination improves histone deacetylation and anti-inflammatory activities in bronchial epithelial cells exposed to cigarette smoke

BACKGROUND

The addition of long-acting beta2-agonists (LABAs) to corticosteroids improves asthma control. Cigarette smoke exposure, increasing oxidative stress, may negatively affect corticosteroid responses. The anti-inflammatory effects of formoterol (FO) and fluticasone propionate (FP) in human bronchial epithelial cells exposed to cigarette smoke extracts (CSE) are unknown.

AIMS

This study explored whether FP, alone and in combination with FO, in human bronchial epithelial cellline (16-HBE) and primary bronchial epithelial cells (NHBE), counteracted some CSE-mediated effects and in particular some of the molecular mechanisms of corticosteroid resistance.

METHODS

16-HBE and NHBE were stimulated with CSE, FP and FO alone or combined. HDAC3 and HDAC2 activity, nuclear translocation of GR and NF-κB, pERK1/2/tERK1/2 ratio, IL-8, TNF-α, IL-1β mRNA expression, and mitochondrial ROS were evaluated. Actin reorganization in neutrophils was assessed by fluorescence microscopy using the phalloidin method.

RESULTS

In 16-HBE, CSE decreased expression/activity of HDAC3, activity of HDAC2, nuclear translocation of GR and increased nuclear NF-κB expression, pERK 1/2/tERK1/2 ratio, and mRNA expression of inflammatory cytokines. In NHBE, CSE increased mRNA expression of inflammatory cytokines and supernatants from CSE exposed NHBE increased actin reorganization in neutrophils. FP combined with FO reverted all these phenomena in CSE stimulated 16-HBE cells as well as in NHBE cells.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study provides compelling evidences that FP combined with FO may contribute to revert some processes related to steroid resistance induced by oxidative stress due to cigarette smoke exposure increasing the anti-inflammatory effects of FP.

Preclinical safety of solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers: Current evidence from in vitro and in vivo evaluation

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC) were designed as exceptionally safe colloidal carriers for the delivery of poorly soluble drugs. SLN/NLC have the particularity of being composed of excipientsalready approved for use in medicines for human use, which offers a great advantage over any other nanoparticulate system developed from novel materials. Despite this fact, any use of excipients in new route of administration or in new dosage form requires evidence of safety. After 25 years of research on SLN and NLC, enough evidence on their preclinical safety has been published. In the present work, published data on in vitro and in vivo compatibility of SLN/NLC have been surveyed, in order to provide evidence of high biocompatibility distinguished by intended administration route. We also identified critical factors and possible weak points in SLN/NLC formulations, such as the effect of surfactants on the cell viability in vitro, which should be considered for further development.

Pro-phagocytic Effects of Thymoquinone on Cigarette Smoke-exposed Macrophages Occur by Modulation of the Sphingosine-1-phosphate Signalling System

Oxidative stress, inflammation, increased bronchial epithelial cell apoptosis, and deficient phagocytic clearance of these cells (efferocytosis) by the alveolar macrophages are present in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and in response to cigarette smoke. We previously showed that the macrophage dysfunction is associated with changes to the sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) signalling system. We hypothesized that the antioxidant/anti-inflammatory agent, thymoquinone, would improve macrophage phagocytosis via modulation of the S1P system and protect bronchial epithelial cells from cigarette smoke or lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced apoptosis. Phagocytosis was assessed using flow cytometry, S1P mediators by Real-Time PCR, and apoptosis of 16HBE bronchial epithelial cells using flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry. Cigarette smoke and LPS decreased phagocytosis and increased S1P receptor (S1PR)-5 mRNA in THP-1 macrophages. Thymoquinone enhanced efferocytic/phagocytic ability, antagonized the effects of cigarette smoke extract and LPS on phagocytosis and S1PR5, and protected bronchial epithelial cells from cigarette smoke-induced apoptosis. Thymoquinone is worth further investigating as a potential therapeutic strategy for smoking-related lung diseases.