Extracellular vesicles: a rising star for therapeutics and drug delivery

Logic-Based Strategy for Spatiotemporal Release of Dual Extracellular Vesicles in Osteoarthritis Treatment

To effectively treat osteoarthritis (OA), the existing inflammation must be reduced before the cartilage damage can be repaired; this cannot be achieved with a single type of extracellular vesicles (EVs). Here, a hydrogel complex with logic-gates function is proposed that can spatiotemporally controlled release two types of EVs: interleukin 10 (IL-10)+ EVs to promote M2 polarization of macrophage, and SRY-box transcription factor 9 (SOX9)+ EVs to increase cartilage matrix synthesis. Following dose-of-action screening, the dual EVs are loaded into a matrix metalloporoteinase 13 (MMP13)-sensitive self-assembled peptide hydrogel (KM13E) and polyethylene glycol diacrylate/gelatin methacryloyl-hydrogel microspheres (PGE), respectively. These materials are mixed to form a "microspheres-in-gel" KM13E@PGE system. In vitro, KM13E@PGE abruptly released IL-10+ EVs after 3 days and slowly released SOX9+ EVs for more than 30 days. In vivo, KM13E@PGE increased the CD206+ M2 macrophage proportion in the synovial tissue and decreased the tumor necrosis factor-α and IL-1β levels. The aggrecan and SOX9 expressions in the cartilage tissues are significantly elevated following inflammation subsidence. This performance is not achieved using anti-inflammatory or cartilage repair therapy alone. The present study provides an injectable, integrated delivery system with spatiotemporal control release of dual EVs, and may inspire logic-gates strategies for OA treatment.

Comparative analysis of whole cell-derived vesicular delivery systems for photodynamic therapy of extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma

This first-in-its-class proof-of-concept study explored the use of bionanovesicles for the delivery of photosensitizer into cultured cholangiocarcinoma cells and subsequent treatment by photodynamic therapy (PDT). Two types of bionanovesicles were prepared: cellular vesicles (CVs) were fabricated by sonication-mediated nanosizing of cholangiocarcinoma (TFK-1) cells, whereas cell membrane vesicles (CMVs) were produced by TFK-1 cell and organelle membrane isolation and subsequent nanovesicularization by sonication. The bionanovesicles were loaded with zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPC). The CVs and CMVs were characterized (size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, stability, ZnPC encapsulation efficiency, spectral properties) and assayed for tumor (TFK-1) cell association and uptake (flow cytometry, confocal microscopy), intracellular ZnPC distribution (confocal microscopy), dark toxicity (MTS assay), and PDT efficacy (MTS assay). The mean ± SD diameter, polydispersity index, and zeta potential were 134 ± 1 nm, -16.1 ± 0.9, and 0.220 ± 0.013, respectively, for CVs and 172 ± 3 nm, -16.4 ± 1.1, and 0.167 ± 0.022, respectively, for CMVs. Cold storage for 1 wk and incorporation of ZnPC increased bionanovesicular diameter slightly but size remained within the recommended range for in vivo application (136-220 nm). ZnPC was incorporated into CVs and CMVs at an optimal photosensitizer:lipid molar ratio of 0.006 and 0.01, respectively. Both bionanovesicles were avidly taken up by TFK-1 cells, resulting in homogenous intracellular ZnPC dispersion. Photosensitization of TFK-1 cells did not cause dark toxicity, while illumination at 671 nm (35.3 J/cm2) produced LC50 values of 1.11 μM (CVs) and 0.51 μM (CMVs) at 24 h post-PDT, which is superior to most LC50 values generated in tumor cells photosensitized with liposomal ZnPC. In conclusion, CVs and CMVs constitute a potent photosensitizer platform with no inherent cytotoxicity and high PDT efficacy in vitro.

Unveiling the Potential of Extracellular Vesicles as Biomarkers and Therapeutic Nanotools for Gastrointestinal Diseases

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), acting as inherent nanocarriers adept at transporting a range of different biological molecules such as proteins, lipids, and genetic material, exhibit diverse functions within the gastroenteric tract. In states of normal health, they participate in the upkeep of systemic and organ homeostasis. Conversely, in pathological conditions, they significantly contribute to the pathogenesis of gastrointestinal diseases (GIDs). Isolating EVs from patients' biofluids facilitates the discovery of new biomarkers that have the potential to offer a rapid, cost-effective, and non-invasive method for diagnosing and prognosing specific GIDs. Furthermore, EVs demonstrate considerable therapeutic potential as naturally targeted physiological carriers for the intercellular delivery of therapeutic cargo molecules or as nanoscale tools engineered specifically to regulate physio-pathological conditions or disease progression. Their attributes including safety, high permeability, stability, biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, and homing/tropism capabilities contribute to their promising clinical therapeutic applications. This review will delve into various examples of EVs serving as biomarkers or nanocarriers for therapeutic cargo in the context of GIDs, highlighting their clinical potential for both functional and structural gastrointestinal conditions. The versatile and advantageous properties of EVs position them as promising candidates for innovative therapeutic strategies in advancing personalized medicine approaches tailored to the gastroenteric tract, addressing both functional and structural GIDs.

The Role of Extracellular Vesicles in the Treatment of Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) has become a public health concern in elderly men due to an ever-increasing number of estimated cases. Unfortunately, the available treatments are unsatisfactory because of a lack of a durable response, especially in advanced disease states. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid-bilayer encircled nanoscale vesicles that carry numerous biomolecules (e.g., nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids), mediating the transfer of information. The past decade has witnessed a wide range of EV applications in both diagnostics and therapeutics. First, EV-based non-invasive liquid biopsies provide biomarkers in various clinical scenarios to guide treatment; EVs can facilitate the grading and staging of patients for appropriate treatment selection. Second, EVs play a pivotal role in pathophysiological processes via intercellular communication. Targeting key molecules involved in EV-mediated tumor progression (e.g., proliferation, angiogenesis, metastasis, immune escape, and drug resistance) is a potential approach for curbing PCa. Third, EVs are promising drug carriers. Naïve EVs from various sources and engineered EV-based drug delivery systems have paved the way for the development of new treatment modalities. This review discusses the recent advancements in the application of EV therapies and highlights EV-based functional materials as novel interventions for PCa.

Urine-derived stem cells: Promising advancements and applications in regenerative medicine and beyond

Currently, stem cells are a prominent focus of regenerative engineering research. However, due to the limitations of commonly used stem cell sources, their application in therapy is often restricted to the experimental stage and constrained by ethical considerations. In contrast, urine-derived stem cells (USCs) offer promising advantages for clinical trials and applications. The noninvasive nature of the collection process allows for repeated retrieval within a short period, making it a more feasible option. Moreover, studies have shown that USCs have a protective effect on organs, promoting vascular regeneration, inhibiting oxidative stress, and reducing inflammation in various acute and chronic organ dysfunctions. The application of USCs has also been enhanced by advancements in biomaterials technology, enabling better targeting and controlled release capabilities. This review aims to summarize the current state of research on USCs, providing insights for future applications in basic and clinical settings.

Exosome lncRNA IFNG-AS1 derived from mesenchymal stem cells of human adipose ameliorates neurogenesis and ASD-like behavior in BTBR mice

BACKGROUND

The transplantation of exosomes derived from human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hADSCs) has emerged as a prospective cellular-free therapeutic intervention for the treatment of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs), as well as autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Nevertheless, the efficacy of hADSC exosome transplantation for ASD treatment remains to be verified, and the underlying mechanism of action remains unclear.

RESULTS

The exosomal long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) from hADSC and human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hUCMSC) were sequenced and 13,915 and 729 lncRNAs were obtained, respectively. The lncRNAs present in hADSC-Exos encompass those found in hUCMSC-Exos and are associated with neurogenesis. The biodistribution of hADSC-Exos in mouse brain ventricles and organoids was tracked, and the cellular uptake of hADSC-Exos was evaluated both in vivo and in vitro. hADSC-Exos promote neurogenesis in brain organoid and ameliorate social deficits in ASD mouse model BTBR T + tf/J (BTBR). Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) confirmed lncRNA Ifngas1 significantly increased in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) of adult mice after hADSC-Exos intraventricular injection. The lncRNA Ifngas1 can act as a molecular sponge for miR-21a-3p to play a regulatory role and promote neurogenesis through the miR-21a-3p/PI3K/AKT axis.

CONCLUSION

We demonstrated hADSC-Exos have the ability to confer neuroprotection through functional restoration, attenuation of neuroinflammation, inhibition of neuronal apoptosis, and promotion of neurogenesis both in vitro and in vivo. The hADSC-Exos-derived lncRNA IFNG-AS1 acts as a molecular sponge and facilitates neurogenesis via the miR-21a-3p/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, thereby exerting a regulatory effect. Our findings suggest a potential therapeutic avenue for individuals with ASD.

Extracellular vesicles: powerful candidates in nano-drug delivery systems

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), which are nanoparticles that are actively released by cells, contain a variety of biologically active substances, serve as significant mediators of intercellular communication, and participate in many processes, in health and pathologically. Compared with traditional nanodrug delivery systems (NDDSs), EVs have unique advantages due to their natural physiological properties, such as their biocompatibility, stability, ability to cross barriers, and inherent homing properties. A growing number of studies have reported that EVs deliver therapeutic proteins, small-molecule drugs, siRNAs, miRNAs, therapeutic proteins, and nanomaterials for targeted therapy in various diseases. However, due to the lack of standardized techniques for isolating, quantifying, and characterizing EVs; lower-than-anticipated drug loading efficiency; insufficient clinical production; and potential safety concerns, the practical application of EVs still faces many challenges. Here, we systematically review the current commonly used methods for isolating EVs, summarize the types and methods of loading therapeutic drugs into EVs, and discuss the latest progress in applying EVs as NDDs. Finally, we present the challenges that hinder the clinical application of EVs.

Extracellular Vesicles in the Central Nervous System: A Novel Mechanism of Neuronal Cell Communication

Cell-to-cell communication is essential for the appropriate development and maintenance of homeostatic conditions in the central nervous system. Extracellular vesicles have recently come to the forefront of neuroscience as novel vehicles for the transfer of complex signals between neuronal cells. Extracellular vesicles are membrane-bound carriers packed with proteins, metabolites, and nucleic acids (including DNA, mRNA, and microRNAs) that contain the elements present in the cell they originate from. Since their discovery, extracellular vesicles have been studied extensively and have opened up new understanding of cell-cell communication; they may cross the blood-brain barrier in a bidirectional way from the bloodstream to the brain parenchyma and vice versa, and play a key role in brain-periphery communication in physiology as well as pathology. Neurons and glial cells in the central nervous system release extracellular vesicles to the interstitial fluid of the brain and spinal cord parenchyma. Extracellular vesicles contain proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, carbohydrates, and primary and secondary metabolites. that can be taken up by and modulate the behaviour of neighbouring recipient cells. The functions of extracellular vesicles have been extensively studied in the context of neurodegenerative diseases. The purpose of this review is to analyse the role extracellular vesicles extracellular vesicles in central nervous system cell communication, with particular emphasis on the contribution of extracellular vesicles from different central nervous system cell types in maintaining or altering central nervous system homeostasis.

Unraveling the Multifaceted Roles of Extracellular Vesicles: Insights into Biology, Pharmacology, and Pharmaceutical Applications for Drug Delivery

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoparticles released from various cell types that have emerged as powerful new therapeutic option for a variety of diseases. EVs are involved in the transmission of biological signals between cells and in the regulation of a variety of biological processes, highlighting them as potential novel targets/platforms for therapeutics intervention and/or delivery. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate new aspects of EVs' biogenesis, biodistribution, metabolism, and excretion as well as safety/compatibility of both unmodified and engineered EVs upon administration in different pharmaceutical dosage forms and delivery systems. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge of essential physiological and pathological roles of EVs in different organs and organ systems. We provide an overview regarding application of EVs as therapeutic targets, therapeutics, and drug delivery platforms. We also explore various approaches implemented over the years to improve the dosage of specific EV products for different administration routes.

Extracellular Vesicles as Delivery Systems in Disease Therapy

Extracellular vesicles (EVs)/exosomes are nanosized membrane-bound structures that are released by virtually all cells. EVs have attracted great attention in the scientific community since the discovery of their roles in cell-to-cell communication. EVs' enclosed structure protects bioactive molecules from degradation in the extracellular space and targets specific tissues according to the topography of membrane proteins. Upon absorption by recipient cells, EV cargo can modify the transcription machinery and alter the cellular functions of these cells, playing a role in disease pathogenesis. EVs have been tested as the delivery system for the mRNA COVID-19 vaccine. Recently, different therapeutic strategies have been designed to use EVs as a delivery system for microRNAs and mRNA. In this review, we will focus on the exciting and various platforms related to using EVs as delivery vehicles, mainly in gene editing using CRISPR/Cas9, cancer therapy, drug delivery, and vaccines. We will also touch upon their roles in disease pathogenesis.

Research Advances of Engineered Exosomes as Drug Delivery Carrier

Exosomes are nanoscale vesicles secreted by living cells that have similar membrane composition to parental cells and carry a variety of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Therefore, exosomes have certain biological activities and play an important role in intercellular communication. On the basis of its potential as a carrier for drug delivery systems, exosomes have been engineered to compensate for the shortage of natural exosomes through various engineering strategies for improving drug delivery efficiency, enhancing targeting to tissues and organs, and extending the circulating half-life of exosomes. This review focuses on the engineered exosomes loading drugs through different strategies, discussions on exosome surface modification strategies, and summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of different strategies. In addition, this review provides an overview of the recent applications of engineered exosomes in a number of refractory and relapsable diseases. This review has the potential to provide a reference for further research and development of engineered exosomes.

Milk-Derived Small Extracellular Vesicles Promote Osteogenic Differentiation and Inhibit Inflammation via microRNA-21

Chronic apical periodontitis (CAP) is a disease with characteristics of inflammation and bone loss. In this study, our objective was to examine the function of small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) obtained from milk in encouraging osteogenic differentiation and inhibiting inflammation by miR-21 in CAP. The expression of miR-21 was detected using qRT-PCR in human CAP samples. The impact of miR-21 on the process of osteogenic differentiation was investigated using CCK-8, qRT-PCR, immunofluorescence staining, and Western blot analysis. The evaluation of RAW 264.7 cell polarization and the assessment of inflammatory factor expression were conducted through qRT-PCR. The influence of sEVs on MC3T3-E1 cells and RAW 264.7 cells was examined, with a particular emphasis on the involvement of miR-21. In human CAP samples, a decrease in miR-21 expression was observed. MiR-21 increased the expression of osteogenesis-related genes and M2 polarization genes while decreasing the expression of M1 polarization genes and inflammatory cytokines. Treatment with milk-derived sEVs also promoted osteogenesis and M2 polarization while inhibiting M1 polarization and inflammation. Conversely, the addition of miR-21 inhibitors resulted in opposite effects. Our results indicated that sEVs derived from milk had a positive effect on bone formation and activation of anti-inflammatory (M2) macrophages and simultaneously reduced inflammation by regulating miR-21 in CAP.

Extracellular Vesicles in Liver Transplantation: Current Evidence and Future Challenges

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are emerging as a promising field of research in liver disease. EVs are small, membrane-bound vesicles that contain various bioactive molecules, such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids and are involved in intercellular communication. They have been implicated in numerous physiological and pathological processes, including immune modulation and tissue repair, which make their use appealing in liver transplantation (LT). This review summarizes the current state of knowledge regarding the role of EVs in LT, including their potential use as biomarkers and therapeutic agents and their role in graft rejection. By providing a comprehensive insight into this emerging topic, this research lays the groundwork for the potential application of EVs in LT.

Suicide-Gene-Modified Extracellular Vesicles of Human Primary Uveal Melanoma in Future Therapies

Extracellular vesicles secreted from uveal melanoma (UM) cells are involved in the establishment of the premetastatic niche and display transforming potential for the formation of metastases, preferentially in the liver. In this study, we cultivated human primary UM cells and uveal melanoma-associated fibroblasts in vitro to be transduced by infection with a retrovirus containing the suicide gene-fused yeast cytosine deaminase::uracil phospho-ribosyl transferase (yCD::UPRT). A homogenous population of yCD::UPRT-UM cells with the integrated provirus expressed the gene, and we found it to continuously secrete small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) possessing mRNA of the suicide gene. The yCD::UPRT-UM-sEVs were internalized by tumor cells to the intracellular conversion of the prodrug 5-fluorocytosine (5-FC) to the cytotoxic drug 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). The host range of the yCD::UPRT-UM-sEVs was not limited to UMs only. The yCD::UPRT-UM-sEVs inhibited the growth of the human cutaneous melanoma cell line A375 and uveal melanoma cell line MP38, as well as other primary UMs, to various extents in vitro. The yCD::UPRT-UM-sEVs hold the therapeutic and prophylactic potential to become a therapeutic drug for UM. However, the use of yCD::UPRT-UM-sEVs must first be tested in animal preclinical studies.