Statistical design for formulation optimization of hydrocortisone butyrate-loaded PLGA nanoparticles

Utilization of nanotechnology and experimental design in the development and optimization of a posaconazole‒calendula oil nanoemulgel for the treatment of mouth disorders

Introduction: Essential oil‒based nanoemulsions (NEs) are the subjects of extensive investigation due to their potential to address a variety of oral health issues. NEs are delivery systems that improve lipid medicine solubility and distribution to intended sites. The goal of the current study was to create and enhance a self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery paradigm based on calendula oil (CO) and decorated with chitosan (CS) that could deliver posaconazole (PSZ) for the treatment of gingivitis. Method: Employing a response-surface Box‒Behnken design, PSZ-CO-CS NEs were created with varying amounts of PSZ (10, 15, and 20 mg), percentages of CO (6%, 12%, and 18%), and percentages of CS (0.5%, 1.5%, and 2.5%). Results and conclusion: The optimized formulation resulted in a 22-mm bacterial growth suppression zone, 25-mm fungal growth inhibition zone, droplet sizes of 110 nm, and a viscosity of 750 centipoise (cP). Using the appropriate design, the ideal formulation was produced; it contained 20 mg of PSZ, 18% of CO, and 1.35% of CS. Furthermore, the optimal formulation had a more controlled drug release, larger inhibition zones of bacterial and fungal growth, and desirable rheologic properties. Additionally, the optimized formulation substantially lowered the ulcer index in rats when tested against other formulations. Thus, this investigation showed that PSZ-CO-CS NEs could provide efficient protection against microbially induced gingivitis.

Human Serum Albumin Nanoparticles: Synthesis, Optimization and Immobilization with Antituberculosis Drugs

The aim of this study was to create nanoparticles of human serum albumin immobilized with anti-TB drugs (rifampicin, isoniazid) using the desolvation method. Central Composite Design (CCD) was applied to study the effect of albumin, urea, L-cysteine, rifampicin and isoniazid concentration on particle size, polydispersity and loading degree of the drugs. The optimized nanoparticles were spherical in shape with an average particle size of 216.7 ± 3.7 nm and polydispersity of 0.286 ± 4.9. The loading degree of rifampicin and isoniazid in the optimized nanoparticles were 44% and 27%, respectively. The obtained nanoparticles were examined by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC); the results showed the absence of drug-polymer interactions. The drug release from the polymer matrix was studied using dialysis membranes.

Wheat husk-based sorbent as an economical solution for removal of oil spills from sea water

Oil spills are a significant threat to the marine ecosystem that requires immediate removal from the oceanic environment. Many technologies have been employed to clean up oil spills. Of these, adsorption has scored a prominent success due to the high efficiency, economic viability, environmental friendship, and ease of application. The utilization of agricultural waste to produce biosorbents have been considered as an ecofriendly and efficient approach for removing oil. Thus, a new low-cost oil adsorbent was prepared via esterification of the wheat straw (Str) with a hydrophobic benzoyl group, the resulting copolymer (Str-co-Benz) was characterized by FTIR, TGA, DSC, and SEM and used at laboratory scale. The oil spill cleanup process was conducted using a crude oil-natural seawater system under different adsorption conditions such as oil concentration, adsorbent dose, agitation time and speed. Equilibrium studies were performed to determine the capacity of the prepared materials for crude oil adsorption. Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption models were used to describe the experimental isotherms. The reliability of the data was examined and evaluated via application of response surface methodology program. The results showed that oil adsorption followed a pseudo-second-order kinetic model and fitted well with Langmuir model with a maximum adsorption capacity of 10.989 and 12.786 g/g for Str and (Str-co-Benz), respectively. Overall, the modified wheat husk is an effective platform for removing oil from marine ecosystems due to low cost, biodegradability, simple synthesis and fast removal. Moreover, the resulted solid can be used as a fuel in some industrial processes such as steam boilers and brick production incinerators.

The Contest of Nanoparticles: Searching for the Most Effective Topical Delivery of Corticosteroids

Owing to their complicated pathophysiology, the treatment of skin diseases necessitates a complex approach. Conventional treatment using topical corticosteroids often results in low effectiveness and the incidence of local or even systemic side effects. Nanoformulation of potent anti-inflammatory drugs has been selected as an optimal strategy for enhanced topical delivery of corticosteroids. In order to assess the efficiency of various nanoformulations, we formulated hydrocortisone (HC) and hydrocortisone-17-butyrate (HCB) into three different systems: lipid nanocapsules (LNC), polymeric nanoparticles (PNP), and ethosomes (ETZ). The systems were characterized using dynamic light scattering for their particle size and uniformity and the morphology of nanoparticles was observed by transmission electron microscopy. The nanosystems were tested using ex vivo full thickness porcine and human skin for the delivery of HC and HCB. The skin penetration was observed by confocal microscopy of fluorescently labelled nanosystems. ETZ were proposed as the most effective delivery system for both transdermal and dermal drug targeting but were also found to have a profound effect on the skin barrier with limited restoration. LNC and PNP were found to have significant effects in the dermal delivery of the actives with only minimal transdermal penetration, especially in case of HCB administration.

Optimization of the incubation parameters for biogenic synthesis of WO3 nanoparticles using Taguchi method

Green synthesis of metal nanoparticles is gathering attention due to eco-friendly processing. Tungsten oxide (WO₃) nanoparticles have immense applications as semiconductors, antimicrobials and photo thermal materials but their synthesis using biological systems is hitherto unpublicized. The paper discusses synthesis of WO₃ nanoparticles using Stenotrophomonas maltophilia and the optimization of physico-chemical parameters of incubation which influence the growth and metabolism of the bacterium and consequently the size of the WO₃ nanoparticles. The biogenic synthesis of WO₃ nanoparticles was confirmed by ATR-FTIR and X-ray diffraction analysis. Taguchi and analysis of variance method was applied to optimize the physico-chemical parameters (pH, temperature, time, aeration rate and concentration), considering particle size and poly dispersity index (PDI) of the nanoparticles as the experimental responses. Under the design of experiments technique, Taguchi's L27 array was selected to determine the optimal process parameters which could significantly reduce the particle size and PDI of WO₃ nanoparticles. Statistical analysis by signal-to-noise ratio, regression analysis and ANOVA (95% confidence level) on experimental responses confirmed pH and aeration as most influential while temperature and time as least influential parameters. pH 8, Temperature 40 °C, aeration 200 RPM, time 3 days and concentration of sodium tungstate at 1 mM (p3t3r3d3c1) was the most effective level and parameters combination for smallest particle size and PDI of WO₃ nanoparticles. Regression models developed for particle size and PDI exhibited a linear regression of 97.80% and 90.89% respectively, while the confirmation test validated the size and PDI of the experimental values against predicted results. SEM image of WO₃ nanoparticles illustrated the same particle size as that predicted, further validating the model. The study can be applied to optimize any process parameters in the industry or on biological systems.

Repurposing Lovastatin Cytotoxicity against the Tongue Carcinoma HSC3 Cell Line Using a Eucalyptus Oil-Based Nanoemulgel Carrier

Tongue cancer is one of the most common carcinomas of the head and neck region. The antitumor activities of statins, including lovastatin (LV), and the essential oil of eucalyptus (Eu oil), have been adequately reported. The aim of this study was to develop a nanoemulgel containing LV combined with Eu oil that could then be made into a nanoemulsion and assessed to determine its cytotoxicity against the cell line human chondrosarcoma-3 (HSC3) of carcinoma of the tongue. An I-optimal coordinate-exchange quadratic mixture design was adopted to optimize the investigated nanoemulsions. The droplet size and stability index of the developed formulations were measured to show characteristics of the nanoemulsions. The optimized LV loaded self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (LV-Eu-SNEDDS) was loaded into the gelling agent Carbopol 934 to develop the nanoemulgel and evaluated for its rheological properties. The cytotoxic efficiency of the optimized LV-Eu-SNEDDS loaded nanoemulgel was tested for cell viability, and the caspase-3 enzyme test was used against the HSC3 cell line of squamous carcinoma of the tongue. The optimized nanoemulsion had a droplet size of 85 nm and a stability index of 93%. The manufactured nanoemulgel loaded with the optimum LV-Eu-SNEDDS exhibited pseudoplastic flow with thixotropic behavior. The developed optimum LV-Eu-SNEDDS-loaded nanoemulgel had the best half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) and caspase-3 enzyme values of the formulations developed for this study, and these features improved the ability of the nanoemulsion-loaded gel to deliver the drug to the investigated target cells. In addition, the in vitro cell viability studies revealed the synergistic effect between LV and Eu oil in the treatment of tongue cancer. These findings illustrated that the LV-Eu-SNEDDS-loaded gel formulation could be beneficial in the local treatment of tongue cancer.

Three 'D's: Design approach, dimensional printing, and drug delivery systems as promising tools in healthcare applications

The development of pharmaceutical drug products is required for the treatment of disease, which has resulted in an increasing number of approvals by regulatory agencies across the globe. To establish a hassle-free manufacturing process, the systematic use of a quality-by-design (QbD) approach combined with process analytical technology (PAT) and printing techniques can revolutionize healthcare applications. Printing technology has been emerged in various dimensions, such as 3D, 4D, and 5D printing, with respect to their production capabilities, durability, and accuracy of pharmaceutical manufacturing, which can efficiently deliver novel patient-centric healthcare products with holistic characteristics. In this review, we provide current trends in pharmaceutical product development using a design approach and high-quality printing techniques.

Microwave-assisted Preparation of Cross-linked Gelatin-Paracetamol Matrices: Optimization Using the D-optimal Design

Objectives

This study was conducted to assess the effect of microwave heating on the preparation of paracetamol cross-linked gelatin matrices by using the design of experiment (DoE) approach and explore the influence of the duration of microwave irradiation, the concentrations of crosslinker, and the amount of sodium bicarbonate (salt) on paracetamol release. These parameters were also compared with those of the matrices prepared via conventional heating.

Materials and Methods

Twenty gel matrices were prepared with different durations of microwave irradiation, amounts of maize, and concentrations of sodium bicarbonate as suggested by Design Expert (DX^®). The percentage drug release, the coefficient of variance (CV) in release, and the mean dissolution time (MDT) were the properties explored in the designed experimentation.

Results

Target responses were dependent on microwave irradiation time, cross-linker amount, and salt concentration. Classical and microwave heating did not demonstrate statistically significant difference in modifying the percentage of drug released from the matrices. However, the CVs of microwave-assisted formulations were lower than those of the gel matrices prepared via classical heating. Thus, microwave heating produced lesser variations in drug release. The optimized gel matrices demonstrated that the observed percentage of drug release, CV, and MDT were within the prediction interval generated by DX^®. The release mechanism of the matrix formulations followed the Peppas-Korsmeyer anomalous transport model.

Conclusion

The DoE-supported microwave-assisted approach could be applied to optimize the critical factors of drug release with less variation.

Transferosomes as nanocarriers for drugs across the skin: Quality by design from lab to industrial scale

Transferosomes, also known as transfersomes, are ultradeformable vesicles for transdermal applications consisting of a lipid bilayer with phospholipids and an edge activator and an ethanol/aqueous core. Depending on the lipophilicity of the active substance, it can be encapsulated within the core or amongst the lipid bilayer. Compared to liposomes, transferosomes are able to reach intact deeper regions of the skin after topical administration delivering higher concentrations of active substances making them a successful drug delivery carrier for transdermal applications. Most transferosomes contain phosphatidylcholine (C18) as it is the most abundant lipid component of the cell membrane, and hence, it is highly tolerated for the skin, decreasing the risk of undesirable effects, such as hypersensitive reactions. The most common edge activators are surfactants such as sodium deoxycholate, Tween® 80 and Span® 80. Their chain length is optimal for intercalation within the C18 phospholipid bilayer. A wide variety of drugs has been successfully encapsulated within transferosomes such as phytocompounds like sinomenine or apigenin for rheumatoid arthritis and leukaemia respectively, small hydrophobic drugs but also macromolecules like insulin. The main factors to develop optimal transferosomal formulations (with high drug loading and nanometric size) are the optimal ratio between the main components as well as the critical process parameters for their manufacture. Application of quality by design (QbD), specifically design of experiments (DoE), is crucial to understand the interplay among all these factors not only during the preparation at lab scale but also in the scale-up process. Clinical trials of a licensed topical ketoprofen transferosomal gel have shown promising results in the alleviation of symptons in orthreothritis with non-severe skin and subcutaneous tissue disorders. However, the product was withdrawn from the market which probably was related to the higher cost of the medicine linked to the expensive manufacturing process required in the production of transferosomes compared to other conventional gel formulations. This example brings out the need for a careful formulation design to exploit the best properties of this drug delivery system as well as the development of manufacturing processes easily scalable at industrial level.

Application of statistical design to evaluate critical process parameters and optimize formulation technique of polymeric nanoparticles

In advanced medication, drug-loaded polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) appeared as a novel drug delivery system with lots of advantages over conventional medicines. Despite all the advantages, NPs do not gain popularity for manufacturing hurdles. The study focused on the formulation difficulties and implementation of statistical design to establish an effective model for manufacturing NPs. In this study, physico-chemical properties of the drug and polymer (PLGA) were incorporated to understand the mechanistic insights of nanoformulations. Primarily, the process controlling parameters were screened by Plackett-Burman design and the critical process parameters (Cpp) were further fabricated by Box-Behnken design (BBD). The TLM-PLGA-NPs (telmisartan loaded PLGA NPs) exhibited particle size, encapsulation efficiency and zeta potential of 232.4 nm, 79.21% and -9.92 mV respectively. The NPs represented drug loading of 76.31%. Korsmeyer-Peppas model (R 2 = 0.925) appeared to be the best fitted model for in vitro release kinetics of NPs. The model identified Fickian diffusion of TLM from the polymeric nanoparticles. The ANOVA results of variables indicate that BBD is a suitable model for the development of polymeric NPs. The study successfully identified and evaluated the correlation of significant parameters that were directly or indirectly influencing the formulations which deliberately produce desired nanoparticles with the help of statistical design.

Synthesis of hesperetin-loaded PLGA nanoparticles by two different experimental design methods and biological evaluation of optimized nanoparticles

Hesperetin was effectively encapsulated into poly (d,l-lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles by using experimental design methods. A seven-factor Plackett-Burman design was used in order to determine the major process parameters. A significant linear equation, which shows the effect of each process parameter on encapsulation efficiency was developed, and then the most effective factors were determined. Further investigation and optimization was carried out by applying the three-factor three-level Box-Behnken design. Significant second-order mathematical models were developed by regression analysis of the experimental data for both responses: encapsulation efficiency and nanoparticle size. The two step experimental design allowed the synthesis of the desired nanoparticle formulations with maximum encapsulation efficiency (80.5 ± 4.9%) and minimum particle size (260.2 ± 16.5 nm) at optimum process conditions: 0.5% polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) concentration, 5.13 water:organic phase ratio, and 3.59 ml min^-1 flow rate of the emulsified solution into 0.1% PVA. Furthermore, the biological activity of these optimized nanoparticles were determined with antimicrobial activity and cytotoxicity studies; results were then compared to the free hesperetin. The cytotoxicity result revealed that hesperetin and hesperetin-loaded nanoparticles were biocompatible with normal cell line L929 fibroblast cells up to 184.83 and 190.88 μg ml^-1 for 24 h, and up to 133.24 and 134.80 μg ml^-1 for 48 h, respectively. In the antimicrobial study, the optimized nanoparticle showed inhibition activity (minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) values were 125 μg ml^-1 for Escherichia coli, and 200 μg ml^-1 for Staphylococcus aureus), while the free hesperetin did not demonstrate activity in both strains (MIC value >200 μg ml^-1). These in vitro results may provide useful information for the investigation of hesperetin-loaded nanoparticles in diagnostic and therapeutic applications.

Nanoparticle-Based Topical Ophthalmic Gel Formulation for Sustained Release of Hydrocortisone Butyrate

This study was conducted to develop formulations of hydrocortisone butyrate (HB)-loaded poly(D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles (PLGA NP) suspended in thermosensitive gel to improve ocular bioavailability of HB for the treatment of bacterial corneal keratitis. PLGA NP with different surfactants such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), pluronic F-108, and chitosan were prepared using oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion evaporation technique. NP were characterized with respect to particle size, entrapment efficiency, polydispersity, drug loading, surface morphology, zeta potential, and crystallinity. In vitro release of HB from NP showed a biphasic release pattern with an initial burst phase followed by a sustained phase. Such burst effect was completely eliminated when nanoparticles were suspended in thermosensitive gels and zero-order release kinetics was observed. In HCEC cell line, chitosan-emulsified NP showed the highest cellular uptake efficiency over PVA- and pluronic-emulsified NP (59.09 ± 6.21%, 55.74 ± 6.26%, and 62.54 ± 3.30%, respectively) after 4 h. However, chitosan-emulsified NP indicated significant cytotoxicity of 200 and 500 μg/mL after 48 h, while PVA- and pluronic-emulsified NP exhibited no significant cytotoxicity. PLGA NP dispersed in thermosensitive gels can be considered as a promising drug delivery system for the treatment of anterior eye diseases.