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Thiery JP, Sheng G, Shu X, Runyan R. How studies in developmental epithelial-mesenchymal transition and mesenchymal-epithelial transition inspired new research paradigms in biomedicine. Development 2024; 151:dev200128. [PMID: 38300897 DOI: 10.1242/dev.200128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and its reverse mechanism, mesenchymal-epithelial transition (MET), are evolutionarily conserved mechanisms initially identified in studies of early metazoan development. EMT may even have been established in choanoflagellates, the closest unicellular relative of Metazoa. These crucial morphological transitions operate during body plan formation and subsequently in organogenesis. These findings have prompted an increasing number of investigators in biomedicine to assess the importance of such mechanisms that drive epithelial cell plasticity in multiple diseases associated with congenital disabilities and fibrosis, and, most importantly, in the progression of carcinoma. EMT and MET also play crucial roles in regenerative medicine, notably by contributing epigenetic changes in somatic cells to initiate reprogramming into stem cells and their subsequent differentiation into distinct lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Guojun Sheng
- International Research Center for Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan
| | - Xiaodong Shu
- Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510530, China
| | - Raymond Runyan
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
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2
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Dawney NS, Cammarota C, Jia Q, Shipley A, Glichowski JA, Vasandani M, Finegan TM, Bergstralh DT. A novel tool for the unbiased characterization of epithelial monolayer development in culture. Mol Biol Cell 2023; 34:ar25. [PMID: 36696175 PMCID: PMC10092640 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e22-04-0121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The function of an epithelial tissue is intertwined with its architecture. Epithelial tissues are often described as pseudo-two-dimensional, but this view may be partly attributed to experimental bias: many model epithelia, including cultured cell lines, are easiest to image from the "top-down." We measured the three-dimensional architecture of epithelial cells in culture and found that it varies dramatically across cultured regions, presenting a challenge for reproducibility and cross-study comparisons. We therefore developed a novel tool (Automated Layer Analysis, "ALAn") to characterize architecture in an unbiased manner. Using ALAn, we find that cultured epithelial cells can organize into four distinct architectures and that architecture correlates with cell density. Cells exhibit distinct biological properties in each architecture. Organization in the apical-basal axis is determined early in monolayer development by substrate availability, while disorganization in the apical-basal axis arises from an inability to form substrate connections. Our work highlights the need to carefully control for three-dimensional architecture when using cell culture as a model system for epithelial cell biology and introduces a novel tool, built on a set of rules that can be widely applied to epithelial cell culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole S Dawney
- Department of Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627
| | - Christian Cammarota
- Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627
| | - Qingyuan Jia
- Department of Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627
| | - Alicia Shipley
- Department of Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627
| | - Joseph A Glichowski
- Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627
| | | | - Tara M Finegan
- Department of Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627
| | - Dan T Bergstralh
- Department of Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627.,Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627.,Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14627
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Ichikawa K, Horiuchi H. Fate Decisions of Chicken Primordial Germ Cells (PGCs): Development, Integrity, Sex Determination, and Self-Renewal Mechanisms. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:genes14030612. [PMID: 36980885 PMCID: PMC10048776 DOI: 10.3390/genes14030612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Revised: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Primordial germ cells (PGCs) are precursor cells of sperm and eggs. The fate decisions of chicken PGCs in terms of their development, integrity, and sex determination have unique features, thereby providing insights into evolutionary developmental biology. Additionally, fate decisions in the context of a self-renewal mechanism have been applied to establish culture protocols for chicken PGCs, enabling the production of genome-edited chickens and the conservation of genetic resources. Thus, studies on the fate decisions of chicken PGCs have significantly contributed to both academic and industrial development. Furthermore, studies on fate decisions have rapidly advanced owing to the recent development of essential research technologies, such as genome editing and RNA sequencing. Here, we reviewed the status of fate decisions of chicken PGCs and provided insight into other important research issues that require attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kennosuke Ichikawa
- Genome Editing Innovation Center, Hiroshima University, 3-10-23 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-0046, Hiroshima, Japan
- Correspondence:
| | - Hiroyuki Horiuchi
- Genome Editing Innovation Center, Hiroshima University, 3-10-23 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-0046, Hiroshima, Japan
- Graduate School of Integrated Sciences for Life, Hiroshima University, 1-4-4 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8528, Hiroshima, Japan
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4
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Nagai H, Tanoue Y, Nakamura T, Chan CJJ, Yamada S, Saitou M, Fukuda T, Sheng G. Mesothelial fusion mediates chorioallantoic membrane formation. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2022; 377:20210263. [PMID: 36252211 PMCID: PMC9574633 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2021.0263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 05/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
In amniotic vertebrates (birds, reptiles and mammals), an extraembryonic structure called the chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) functions as respiratory organ for embryonic development. The CAM is derived from fusion between two pre-existing membranes, the allantois, a hindgut diverticulum and a reservoir for metabolic waste, and the chorion which marks the embryo's external boundary. Modified CAM in eutherian mammals, including humans, gives rise to chorioallantoic placenta. Despite its importance, little is known about cellular and molecular mechanisms mediating CAM formation and maturation. In this work, using the avian model, we focused on the early phase of CAM morphogenesis when the allantois and chorion meet and initiate fusion. We report here that chicken chorioallantoic fusion takes place when the allantois reaches the size of 2.5-3.0 mm in diameter and in about 6 hours between E3.75 and E4. Electron microscopy and immunofluorescence analyses suggested that before fusion, in both the allantois and chorion, an epithelial-shaped mesothelial layer is present, which dissolves after fusion, presumably by undergoing epithelial-mesenchymal transition. The fusion process per se, however, is independent of allantoic growth, circulation, or its connection to the developing mesonephros. Mesoderm cells derived from the allantois and chorion can intermingle post-fusion, and chorionic ectoderm cells exhibit a specialized sub-apical intercellular interface, possibly to facilitate infiltration of allantois-derived vascular progenitors into the chorionic ectoderm territory for optimal oxygen transport. Finally, we investigated chorioallantoic fusion-like process in primates, with limited numbers of archived human and fresh macaque samples. We summarize the similarities and differences of CAM formation among different amniote groups and propose that mesothelial epithelial-mesenchymal transition mediates chorioallantoic fusion in most amniotic vertebrates. Further study is needed to clarify tissue morphogenesis leading to chorioallantoic fusion in primates. Elucidating molecular mechanisms regulating mesothelial integrity and epithelial-mesenchymal transition will also help understand mesothelial diseases in the adult, including mesothelioma, ovarian cancer and fibrosis. This article is part of the theme issue 'Extraembryonic tissues: exploring concepts, definitions and functions across the animal kingdom'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroki Nagai
- International Research Center for Medical Sciences (IRCMS), Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan
| | - Yuki Tanoue
- International Research Center for Medical Sciences (IRCMS), Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan
| | - Tomonori Nakamura
- Institute for the Advanced Study of Human Biology (WPI-ASHBI), Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
- The Hakubi Center for Advanced Research, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Christopher J. J. Chan
- International Research Center for Medical Sciences (IRCMS), Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan
| | - Shigehito Yamada
- Congenital Anomaly Research Center, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Mitinori Saitou
- Institute for the Advanced Study of Human Biology (WPI-ASHBI), Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
- Center for iPS Cell Research and Application (CiRA), Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
| | - Takaichi Fukuda
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan
| | - Guojun Sheng
- International Research Center for Medical Sciences (IRCMS), Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-0811, Japan
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Wu S, Zhao S, Cui D, Xie J, Qian L. Advances in the Biology, Detection Techniques, and Clinical Applications of Circulating Tumor Cells. Journal of Oncology 2022; 2022:1-14. [PMID: 36090904 PMCID: PMC9462976 DOI: 10.1155/2022/7149686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Revised: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) play a crucial role in tumor recurrence and metastasis, and their early detection has shown remarkable benefits in clinical theranostics. However, CTCs are extremely rare, thus detecting them in the blood is very challenging. New CTC detection techniques are continuously being developed, enabling deeper analysis of CTC biology and potential clinical application. This article reviews current CTC detection techniques and their clinical application. CTCs have provided, and will continue to provide, important insights into the process of metastasis, which could lead to development of new therapies for different cancers.
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Ruscitto F, Roda N, Priami C, Migliaccio E, Pelicci PG. Beyond Genetics: Metastasis as an Adaptive Response in Breast Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:6271. [PMID: 35682953 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23116271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Metastatic disease represents the primary cause of breast cancer (BC) mortality, yet it is still one of the most enigmatic processes in the biology of this tumor. Metastatic progression includes distinct phases: invasion, intravasation, hematogenous dissemination, extravasation and seeding at distant sites, micro-metastasis formation and metastatic outgrowth. Whole-genome sequencing analyses of primary BC and metastases revealed that BC metastatization is a non-genetically selected trait, rather the result of transcriptional and metabolic adaptation to the unfavorable microenvironmental conditions which cancer cells are exposed to (e.g., hypoxia, low nutrients, endoplasmic reticulum stress and chemotherapy administration). In this regard, the latest multi-omics analyses unveiled intra-tumor phenotypic heterogeneity, which determines the polyclonal nature of breast tumors and constitutes a challenge for clinicians, correlating with patient poor prognosis. The present work reviews BC classification and epidemiology, focusing on the impact of metastatic disease on patient prognosis and survival, while describing general principles and current in vitro/in vivo models of the BC metastatic cascade. The authors address here both genetic and phenotypic intrinsic heterogeneity of breast tumors, reporting the latest studies that support the role of the latter in metastatic spreading. Finally, the review illustrates the mechanisms underlying adaptive stress responses during BC metastatic progression.
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Sorin S, Kubota S, Hamidi S, Yokomizo‐Nakano T, Vaeteewoottacharn K, Wongkham S, Waraasawapati S, Pairojkul C, Bai J, Morii M, Sheng G, Sawanyawisuth K, Sashida G. HMGN3 represses transcription of epithelial regulators to promote migration of cholangiocarcinoma in a SNAI2‐dependent manner. FASEB J 2022; 36:e22345. [DOI: 10.1096/fj.202200386r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Supannika Sorin
- Department of Biochemistry Faculty of Medicine Center for Translational Medicine Khon Kaen University Khon Kaen Thailand
- Cholangiocarcinoma Research Institute Khon Kaen University Khon Kaen Thailand
| | - Sho Kubota
- Laboratory of Transcriptional Regulation in Leukemogenesis International Research Center for Medical Sciences (IRCMS) Kumamoto University Kumamoto Japan
| | - Sofiane Hamidi
- Laboratory of Developmental Morphogenesis International Research Center for Medical Sciences (IRCMS) Kumamoto University Kumamoto Japan
| | - Takako Yokomizo‐Nakano
- Laboratory of Transcriptional Regulation in Leukemogenesis International Research Center for Medical Sciences (IRCMS) Kumamoto University Kumamoto Japan
| | - Kulthida Vaeteewoottacharn
- Department of Biochemistry Faculty of Medicine Center for Translational Medicine Khon Kaen University Khon Kaen Thailand
- Cholangiocarcinoma Research Institute Khon Kaen University Khon Kaen Thailand
| | - Sopit Wongkham
- Department of Biochemistry Faculty of Medicine Center for Translational Medicine Khon Kaen University Khon Kaen Thailand
| | - Sakda Waraasawapati
- Department of Pathology Faculty of Medicine Khon Kaen University Khon Kaen Thailand
| | - Chawalit Pairojkul
- Department of Pathology Faculty of Medicine Khon Kaen University Khon Kaen Thailand
| | - Jie Bai
- Laboratory of Transcriptional Regulation in Leukemogenesis International Research Center for Medical Sciences (IRCMS) Kumamoto University Kumamoto Japan
| | - Mariko Morii
- Laboratory of Transcriptional Regulation in Leukemogenesis International Research Center for Medical Sciences (IRCMS) Kumamoto University Kumamoto Japan
| | - Guojun Sheng
- Laboratory of Developmental Morphogenesis International Research Center for Medical Sciences (IRCMS) Kumamoto University Kumamoto Japan
| | - Kanlayanee Sawanyawisuth
- Department of Biochemistry Faculty of Medicine Center for Translational Medicine Khon Kaen University Khon Kaen Thailand
- Cholangiocarcinoma Research Institute Khon Kaen University Khon Kaen Thailand
| | - Goro Sashida
- Laboratory of Transcriptional Regulation in Leukemogenesis International Research Center for Medical Sciences (IRCMS) Kumamoto University Kumamoto Japan
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Simões S, Lerchbaumer G, Pellikka M, Giannatou P, Lam T, Kim D, Yu J, ter Stal D, Al Kakouni K, Fernandez-Gonzalez R, Tepass U. Crumbs complex-directed apical membrane dynamics in epithelial cell ingression. J Cell Biol 2022; 221:213229. [PMID: 35588693 PMCID: PMC9123285 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.202108076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Epithelial cells often leave their tissue context and ingress to form new cell types or acquire migratory ability to move to distant sites during development and tumor progression. Cells lose their apical membrane and epithelial adherens junctions during ingression. However, how factors that organize apical-basal polarity contribute to ingression is unknown. Here, we show that the dynamic regulation of the apical Crumbs polarity complex is crucial for normal neural stem cell ingression. Crumbs endocytosis and recycling allow ingression to occur in a normal timeframe. During early ingression, Crumbs and its complex partner the RhoGEF Cysts support myosin and apical constriction to ensure robust ingression dynamics. During late ingression, the E3-ubiquitin ligase Neuralized facilitates the disassembly of the Crumbs complex and the rapid endocytic removal of the apical cell domain. Our findings reveal a mechanism integrating cell fate, apical polarity, endocytosis, vesicle trafficking, and actomyosin contractility to promote cell ingression, a fundamental morphogenetic process observed in animal development and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sérgio Simões
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Gerald Lerchbaumer
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Milena Pellikka
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Paraskevi Giannatou
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Thomas Lam
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Dohyun Kim
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jessica Yu
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada,Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - David ter Stal
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kenana Al Kakouni
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Rodrigo Fernandez-Gonzalez
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada,Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada,Ted Rogers Centre for Heart Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada,Developmental and Stem Cell Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ulrich Tepass
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada,Correspondence to Ulrich Tepass:
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Abstract
[Figure: see text].
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Affiliation(s)
- Guojun Sheng
- International Research Center for Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Alfonso Martinez Arias
- Systems Bioengineering, DCEXS, Universidad Pompeu Fabra, Doctor Aiguader, 88 ICREA, Pag Lluis Companys 23, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ann Sutherland
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, VA, USA
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Martin BL. Mesoderm induction and patterning: Insights from neuromesodermal progenitors. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2021; 127:37-45. [PMID: 34840081 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2021.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Revised: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of mesoderm inducing signals helped usher in the era of molecular developmental biology, and today the mechanisms of mesoderm induction and patterning are still intensely studied. Mesoderm induction begins during gastrulation, but recent evidence in vertebrates shows that this process continues after gastrulation in a group of posteriorly localized cells called neuromesodermal progenitors (NMPs). NMPs reside within the post-gastrulation embryonic structure called the tailbud, where they make a lineage decision between ectoderm (spinal cord) and mesoderm. The majority of NMP-derived mesoderm generates somites, but also contributes to lateral mesoderm fates such as endothelium. The discovery of NMPs provides a new paradigm in which to study vertebrate mesoderm induction. This review will discuss mechanisms of mesoderm induction within NMPs, and how they have informed our understanding of mesoderm induction more broadly within vertebrates as well as animal species outside of the vertebrate lineage. Special focus will be given to the signaling networks underlying NMP-derived mesoderm induction and patterning, as well as emerging work on the significance of partial epithelial-mesenchymal states in coordinating cell fate and morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin L Martin
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-5215, USA.
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Chen P, Zuo N, Wu C, Ma J, Li Y, Gu J, Li W, Liu S. MECOM promotes supporting cell proliferation and differentiation in cochlea. J Otol 2021. [PMID: 35949554 PMCID: PMC9349018 DOI: 10.1016/j.joto.2021.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Permanent damage to hair cells (HCs) is the leading cause of sensory deafness. Supporting cells (SCs) are essential in the restoration of hearing in mammals because they can proliferate and differentiate to HCs. MDS1 and EVI1 complex locus (MECOM) is vital in early development and cell differentiation and regulates the TGF-β signaling pathway to adapt to pathophysiological events, such as hematopoietic proliferation, differentiation and cells death. In addition, MECOM plays an essential role in neurogenesis and craniofacial development. However, the role of MECOM in the development of cochlea and its way to regulate related signaling are not fully understood. To address this problem, this study examined the expression of MECOM during the development of cochlea and observed a significant increase of MECOM at the key point of auditory epithelial morphogenesis, indicating that MECOM may have a vital function in the formation of cochlea and regeneration of HCs. Meanwhile, we tried to explore the possible effect and potential mechanism of MECOM in SC proliferation and HC regeneration. Findings from this study indicate that overexpression of MECOM markedly increases the proliferation of SCs in the inner ear, and the expression of Smad3 and Cdkn2b related to TGF signaling is significantly down-regulated, corresponding to the overexpression of MECOM. Collectively, these data may provide an explanation of the vital function of MECOM in SC proliferation and trans-differentiation into HCs, as well as its regulation. The interaction between MECOM, Wnt, Notch and the TGF-β signaling may provide a feasible approach to induce the regeneration of HCs.
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