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Rozpędek W, Pytel D, Popławski T, Walczak A, Gradzik K, Wawrzynkiewicz A, Wojtczak R, Mucha B, Diehl JA, Majsterek I. Inhibition of the PERK-Dependent Unfolded Protein Response Signaling Pathway Involved in the Pathogenesis of Alzheimer's Disease. Curr Alzheimer Res 2020; 16:209-218. [PMID: 30819079 DOI: 10.2174/1567205016666190228121157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2018] [Revised: 01/07/2019] [Accepted: 01/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES There is a body of evidence that neurodegenerative disease entities are directly correlated with the perturbations on the molecular level. Hence, the ER stress-mediated Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) is activated resulting in PERK-dependent phosphorylation of the Eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2α). Thus, the levels of ATF4 and CHOP proteins are significantly increased, which subsequently switches the pro-adaptive branch of the UPR into the pro-apoptotic directly leading to neuronal loss and initiation of the neurodegenerative process. The aim of the presented study was the evaluation of the biological activity of highly specific, small-molecule inhibitors of the PERKdependent UPR signaling pathway. METHODS The study was conducted on rat astrocytic DI TNC1 cell line. The level of p-eIF2α was measured by Western blot technique, the cytotoxicity of the investigated compound was assessed by the MTT assay and using the FITC-conjugated Annexin V (Annexin V-FITC) to indicate apoptosis and propidium iodide (PI) to indicate necrosis. The effect of tested compound on cell cycle progression was measured by flow cytometry, where the PI-labelled nuclei were analysed for DNA content. RESULTS As a result one of the investigated compound LDN-0060609 triggers a significant inhibition of the eIF2α phosphorylation in DI TNC1 cell line. Moreover, we showed that compound LDN-0060609 is non-cytotoxic and has no effect on cell cycle progression. CONCLUSION In conclusion, LDN-0060609 may constitute a novel, targeted treatment approach against neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), where pathogenesis and progression are closely associated with the overactivation of the PERK-dependent UPR signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wioletta Rozpędek
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Military-Medical Faculty, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - Dariusz Pytel
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, United States
| | - Tomasz Popławski
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Military-Medical Faculty, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - Anna Walczak
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Military-Medical Faculty, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - Kinga Gradzik
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Military-Medical Faculty, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - Adam Wawrzynkiewicz
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Military-Medical Faculty, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - Radosław Wojtczak
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Military-Medical Faculty, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - Bartosz Mucha
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Military-Medical Faculty, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, United States
| | - John Alan Diehl
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, United States
| | - Ireneusz Majsterek
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Military-Medical Faculty, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
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Jago RC, Scholes S, Mair TS, Pearson GR, Pirie RS, Handel I, Milne EM, Coyle F, Mcgorum BC. Histological assessment of β-amyloid precursor protein immunolabelled rectal biopsies aids diagnosis of equine grass sickness. Equine Vet J 2017. [PMID: 28621903 DOI: 10.1111/evj.12710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND An accurate, minimally invasive, ante-mortem diagnostic test for equine grass sickness (EGS) is currently lacking. Although histological examination of haematoxylin and eosin-stained rectal biopsies for chromatolytic neurons is insensitive as a diagnostic test for EGS, we hypothesised that its diagnostic accuracy could be improved by immunolabelling for β-amyloid precursor protein (β-APP), which has increased expression in cranial cervical ganglia (CCG) neuronal perikarya in EGS. OBJECTIVES To develop a grading scheme for assessing the distribution and intensity of β-APP immunoreactivity within individual rectal submucosal neurons and subsequently to determine the value of the distribution of different grades of neurons in EGS diagnosis. STUDY DESIGN Retrospective case-control diagnostic accuracy study. METHODS Initially, a standardised grading scheme was developed and β-APP immunoreactivity in individual neuronal perikarya and axons was compared in sections of CCG and ileum from EGS and control horses. The grading scheme was then refined before being blindly applied to submucosal neurons in rectal biopsies derived from 21 EGS and 23 control horses. RESULTS β-APP immunoreactivity was increased in neuronal perikarya and axons in sections of CCG, ileum and rectum from EGS horses compared with controls. For rectal biopsies, a mean immunoreactivity grade exceeding 1.1 was 100% specific and sensitive for EGS, and the presence of at least one neuron with diffuse labelling of the entire cytoplasm (grade 3) was 95% sensitive and 100% specific for EGS. MAIN LIMITATIONS Although the diagnostic criteria facilitated the discrimination of the EGS and control biopsies evaluated in this study, further prospective validation using a larger sample set is required. CONCLUSIONS Histological assessment of β-APP immunolabelled rectal biopsies is more sensitive than conventional histological examination in EGS diagnosis. Further validation is required before this technique can be advocated for use in clinical decision making.
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Affiliation(s)
- R C Jago
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - S Scholes
- SAC Consulting Veterinary Services, Penicuik, UK
| | - T S Mair
- Bell Equine Veterinary Clinic, Maidstone, UK
| | - G R Pearson
- School of Clinical Veterinary Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - R S Pirie
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - I Handel
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - E M Milne
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - F Coyle
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - B C Mcgorum
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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Gannon PJ, Akay-Espinoza C, Yee AC, Briand LA, Erickson MA, Gelman BB, Gao Y, Haughey NJ, Zink MC, Clements JE, Kim NS, Van De Walle G, Jensen BK, Vassar R, Pierce RC, Gill AJ, Kolson DL, Diehl JA, Mankowski JL, Jordan-Sciutto KL. HIV Protease Inhibitors Alter Amyloid Precursor Protein Processing via β-Site Amyloid Precursor Protein Cleaving Enzyme-1 Translational Up-Regulation. Am J Pathol 2017; 187:91-109. [PMID: 27993242 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2016.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2016] [Revised: 08/22/2016] [Accepted: 09/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Mounting evidence implicates antiretroviral (ARV) drugs as potential contributors to the persistence and evolution of clinical and pathological presentation of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders in the post-ARV era. Based on their ability to induce endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in various cell types, we hypothesized that ARV-mediated ER stress in the central nervous system resulted in chronic dysregulation of the unfolded protein response and altered amyloid precursor protein (APP) processing. We used in vitro and in vivo models to show that HIV protease inhibitor (PI) class ARVs induced neuronal damage and ER stress, leading to PKR-like ER kinase-dependent phosphorylation of the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2α and enhanced translation of β-site APP cleaving enzyme-1 (BACE1). In addition, PIs induced β-amyloid production, indicative of increased BACE1-mediated APP processing, in rodent neuroglial cultures and human APP-expressing Chinese hamster ovary cells. Inhibition of BACE1 activity protected against neuronal damage. Finally, ARVs administered to mice and SIV-infected macaques resulted in neuronal damage and BACE1 up-regulation in the central nervous system. These findings implicate a subset of PIs as potential mediators of neurodegeneration in HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick J Gannon
- Department of Pharmacology, The Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Department of Pathology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Cagla Akay-Espinoza
- Department of Pathology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Alan C Yee
- Department of Pathology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Lisa A Briand
- Department of Psychology, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Michelle A Erickson
- Department of Pathology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Benjamin B Gelman
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas
| | - Yan Gao
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Norman J Haughey
- Richard T. Johnson Division of Neuroimmunology and Neurological Infections, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - M Christine Zink
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Janice E Clements
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Nicholas S Kim
- Department of Pathology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Gabriel Van De Walle
- Department of Pathology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Brigid K Jensen
- Department of Pathology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Robert Vassar
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois
| | - R Christopher Pierce
- Department of Psychiatry, The Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Alexander J Gill
- Department of Neurology, The Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Dennis L Kolson
- Department of Neurology, The Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - J Alan Diehl
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Joseph L Mankowski
- Richard T. Johnson Division of Neuroimmunology and Neurological Infections, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Kelly L Jordan-Sciutto
- Department of Pathology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
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Steele KE, Seth P, Catlin-Lebaron KMK, Schoneboom BA, Husain MM, Grieder F, Maheshwari RK. Tunicamycin Enhances Neuroinvasion and Encephalitis in Mice Infected with Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus. Vet Pathol 2016; 43:904-13. [PMID: 17099147 DOI: 10.1354/vp.43-6-904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) viruses cause natural outbreaks in humans and horses and represent a significant biothreat agent. The effect of tunicamycin on the course of the disease in mice with VEE was investigated, and the combined effects of these agents was characterized. CD-1 mice given 2.5 μg of tunicamycin had > 1,000-fold more virus in the brain 48 hours after infection with the virulent VEE strain V3000 and >100-fold of the attenuated strain V3034 at all tested times than did untreated mice, indicating enhanced neuroinvasion. Tunicamycin did not alter the viremia profiles of these viruses nor the replication of V3000 in the brain itself. Tunicamycin alone caused ultrastructural blood-brain barrier damage, yet neuroinvasion by V3000 in treated mice appeared to occur via the olfactory system rather than the blood-brain barrier. Tunicamycin-treated, V3000-infected mice also exhibited earlier and more severe weight loss, neurological signs, neuronal infection, neuronal necrosis and apoptosis, and inflammation than untreated, V3000-infected mice. The mean survival time of tunicamycin-treated, V3000-infected mice was 7.3 days versus 9.9 days for untreated, V3000-infected mice. These studies imply that animals that ingest toxins similar to tunicamycin, including the agent of annual ryegrass toxicity in livestock, are conceivably at greater risk from infections by encephalitis viruses and that humans and horses exposed to agents acting similar to tunicamycin may be more susceptible to encephalitis caused by VEE viruses. The exact mechanism of tunicamycin-enhanced neuroinvasion by VEE viruses requires further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- K E Steele
- Department of Pathology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, 4301 Jones Bridge Road, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
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Pytel D, Majsterek I, Diehl JA. Tumor progression and the different faces of the PERK kinase. Oncogene 2015; 35:1207-15. [PMID: 26028033 PMCID: PMC4666839 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2015.178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2014] [Revised: 04/07/2015] [Accepted: 04/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The serine/threonine endoplasmic reticulum (ER) kinase, protein kinase R (PKR)-like ER kinase (PERK), is a pro-adaptive protein kinase whose activity is regulated indirectly by protein misfolding within the ER. As the oxidative folding environment in the ER is sensitive to a variety of cellular stresses, many of which occur during neoplastic transformation and in the tumor microenvironment, there has been considerable interest in defining whether PERK positively contributes to tumor progression and whether it represents a significant therapeutic target. Herein, we review the current knowledge of PERK-dependent signaling pathways, the contribution of downstream substrates including recently characterized new PERK substrates transcription factors Forkhead box O protein and diacyglycerol a lipid signaling second messenger, and efforts to develop small molecule PERK inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Pytel
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - I Majsterek
- Department of Clinical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Medical University of Lodz, Hallera 1, Lodz, Poland
| | - J A Diehl
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
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Pytel D, Seyb K, Liu M, Ray SS, Concannon J, Huang M, Cuny GD, Diehl JA, Glicksman MA. Enzymatic Characterization of ER Stress-Dependent Kinase, PERK, and Development of a High-Throughput Assay for Identification of PERK Inhibitors. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 19:1024-34. [PMID: 24598103 DOI: 10.1177/1087057114525853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2013] [Accepted: 02/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
PERK is serine/threonine kinase localized to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane. PERK is activated and contributes to cell survival in response to a variety of physiological stresses that affect protein quality control in the ER, such as hypoxia, glucose depravation, increased lipid biosynthesis, and increased protein translation. Pro-survival functions of PERK are triggered by such stresses, suggesting that development of small-molecule inhibitors of PERK may be efficacious in a variety of disease scenarios. Hence, we have conducted a detailed enzymatic characterization of the PERK kinase to develop a high-throughput-screening assay (HTS) that will permit the identification of small-molecule PERK inhibitors. In addition to establishing the K(m) of PERK for both its primary substrate, eIF2α, and for adenosine triphosphate, further mechanistic studies revealed that PERK targets its substrate via either a random/steady-state ordered mechanism. For HTS, we developed a time-resolved fluorescence resonance energy transfer-based assay that yielded a robust Z' factor and percent coefficient of variation value, enabling the successful screening of 79,552 compounds. This approach yielded one compound that exhibited good in vitro and cellular activity. These results demonstrate the validity of this screen and represent starting points for drug discovery efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dariusz Pytel
- The Abramson Family Cancer Research Institute, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA Department of Cancer Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA Abramson Cancer Center and Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neurodegeneration, Harvard NeuroDiscovery Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Kathleen Seyb
- Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neurodegeneration, Harvard NeuroDiscovery Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Min Liu
- Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neurodegeneration, Harvard NeuroDiscovery Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Soumya S Ray
- Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neurodegeneration, Harvard NeuroDiscovery Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - John Concannon
- Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neurodegeneration, Harvard NeuroDiscovery Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Mickey Huang
- Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neurodegeneration, Harvard NeuroDiscovery Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Gregory D Cuny
- Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neurodegeneration, Harvard NeuroDiscovery Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - J Alan Diehl
- The Abramson Family Cancer Research Institute, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA Department of Cancer Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA Abramson Cancer Center and Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Marcie A Glicksman
- Laboratory for Drug Discovery in Neurodegeneration, Harvard NeuroDiscovery Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA, USA
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Krstic D, Knuesel I. The airbag problem-a potential culprit for bench-to-bedside translational efforts: relevance for Alzheimer's disease. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2013; 1:62. [PMID: 24252346 PMCID: PMC3893418 DOI: 10.1186/2051-5960-1-62] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2013] [Accepted: 09/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
For the last 20 years, the "amyloid cascade hypothesis" has dominated research aimed at understanding, preventing, and curing Alzheimer's disease (AD). During that time researchers have acquired an enormous amount of data and have been successful, more than 300 times, in curing the disease in animal model systems by treatments aimed at clearing amyloid deposits. However, to date similar strategies have not been successful in human AD patients. Hence, before rushing into further clinical trials with compounds that aim at lowering amyloid-beta (Aβ) levels in increasingly younger people, it would be of highest priority to re-assess the initial assumption that accumulation of Aβ in the brain is the primary pathological event driving AD. Here we question this assumption by highlighting experimental evidence in support of the alternative hypothesis suggesting that APP and Aβ are part of a neuronal stress/injury system, which is up-regulated to counteract inflammation/oxidative stress-associated neurodegeneration that could be triggered by a brain injury, chronic infections, or a systemic disease. In AD, this protective program may be overridden by genetic and other risk factors, or its maintenance may become dysregulated during aging. Here, we provide a hypothetical example of a hypothesis-driven correlation between car accidents and airbag release in analogy to the evolution of the amyloid focus and as a way to offer a potential explanation for the failure of the AD field to translate the success of amyloid-related therapeutic strategies in experimental models to the clinic.
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Sämann J, Hegermann J, von Gromoff E, Eimer S, Baumeister R, Schmidt E. Caenorhabditits elegans LRK-1 and PINK-1 act antagonistically in stress response and neurite outgrowth. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:16482-16491. [PMID: 19251702 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m808255200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in two genes encoding the putative kinases LRRK2 and PINK1 have been associated with inherited variants of Parkinson disease. The physiological role of both proteins is not known at present, but studies in model organisms have linked their mutants to distinct aspects of mitochondrial dysfunction, increased vulnerability to oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum stress, and intracellular protein sorting. Here, we show that a mutation in the Caenorhabditits elegans homologue of the PTEN-induced kinase pink-1 gene resulted in reduced mitochondrial cristae length and increased paraquat sensitivity of the nematode. Moreover, the mutants also displayed defects in axonal outgrowth of a pair of canal-associated neurons. We demonstrate that in the absence of lrk-1, the C. elegans homologue of human LRRK2, all phenotypic aspects of pink-1 loss-of-function mutants were suppressed. Conversely, the hypersensitivity of lrk-1 mutant animals to the endoplasmic reticulum stressor tunicamycin was reduced in a pink-1 mutant background. These results provide the first evidence of an antagonistic role of PINK-1 and LRK-1. Due to the similarity of the C. elegans proteins to human LRRK2 and PINK1, we suggest a common role of both factors in cellular functions including stress response and regulation of neurite outgrowth. This study might help to link pink-1/PINK1 and lrk-1/LRRK2 function to the pathological processes resulting from Parkinson disease-related mutants in both genes, the first manifestations of which are cytoskeletal defects in affected neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Sämann
- From Bioinformatics and Molecular Genetics (Faculty of Biology), ZBMZ (Faculty of Medicine), and ZBSA-Center for Systems Biology, Albert-Ludwigs-Universitaet Freiburg, 79104
| | - Jan Hegermann
- Freiburg and the European Neuroscience Institute (ENI) and Deutsche Forsch ungs ge mein schaft (DFG) Research Center for Molecular Physiology of the Brain (CMPB), University Medical Faculty, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Erika von Gromoff
- From Bioinformatics and Molecular Genetics (Faculty of Biology), ZBMZ (Faculty of Medicine), and ZBSA-Center for Systems Biology, Albert-Ludwigs-Universitaet Freiburg, 79104
| | - Stefan Eimer
- Freiburg and the European Neuroscience Institute (ENI) and Deutsche Forsch ungs ge mein schaft (DFG) Research Center for Molecular Physiology of the Brain (CMPB), University Medical Faculty, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Ralf Baumeister
- From Bioinformatics and Molecular Genetics (Faculty of Biology), ZBMZ (Faculty of Medicine), and ZBSA-Center for Systems Biology, Albert-Ludwigs-Universitaet Freiburg, 79104; Freiburg Institute for Advanced Studies, School of Life Sciences (LIFENET), and Centre for Biological Signalling Studies (BIOSS), 79104.
| | - Enrico Schmidt
- From Bioinformatics and Molecular Genetics (Faculty of Biology), ZBMZ (Faculty of Medicine), and ZBSA-Center for Systems Biology, Albert-Ludwigs-Universitaet Freiburg, 79104
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Affiliation(s)
- J W Finnie
- Veterinary Services Division and Hanson Institute Centre for Neurological Diseases, Institute of Medical and Veterinary Science
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