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Arekar K, Tiwari N, Sathyakumar S, Khaleel M, Karanth P. Geography vs. past climate: the drivers of population genetic structure of the Himalayan langur. BMC Ecol Evol 2022; 22:100. [PMID: 35971061 PMCID: PMC9377076 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-022-02054-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Contemporary species distribution, genetic diversity and evolutionary history in many taxa are shaped by both historical and current climate as well as topography. The Himalayas show a huge variation in topography and climatic conditions across its entire range, and have experienced major climatic fluctuations in the past. However, very little is known regarding how this heterogenous landscape has moulded the distribution of Himalayan fauna. A recent study examined the effect of these historical events on the genetic diversity of the Himalayan langurs in Nepal Himalaya. However, this study did not include the samples from the Indian Himalayan region (IHR). Therefore, here we revisit the questions addressed in the previous study with a near complete sampling from the IHR, along with the samples from the Nepal Himalaya. We used the mitochondrial Cytochrome-b (Cyt-b, 746 bp) region combined with multiple phylogeographic analyses and palaeodistribution modelling. Results Our dataset contained 144 sequences from the IHR as well as the Nepal Himalaya. Phylogenetic analysis showed a low divergent western clade nested within high divergent group of eastern lineages and in the network analysis we identified 22 haplotypes over the entire distribution range of the Himalayan langurs. Samples from the Nepal Himalaya showed geographically structured haplotypes corresponding to different river barriers, whereas samples from IHR showed star-like topology with no structure. Our statistical phylogeography analysis using diyABC supported the model of east to west colonisation of these langurs with founder event during colonisation. Analysis of demographic history showed that the effective population size of the Himalayan langurs decreased at the onset of last glacial maximum (LGM) and started increasing post LGM. The palaeodistribution modelling showed that the extent of suitable habitat shifted from low elevation central Nepal, and adjoining parts of north India, during LGM to the western Himalaya at present. Conclusion The current genetic diversity and distribution of Himalayan langurs in the Nepal Himalaya has been shaped by river barriers, whereas the rivers in the IHR had relatively less time to act as a strong genetic barrier after the recent colonisation event. Further, the post LGM expansion could have had confounding effect on Himalayan langur population structure in both Nepal Himalaya and IHR. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12862-022-02054-1.
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Chatterjee P, Mukherjee T, Dutta R, Sharief A, Kumar V, Joshi BD, Chandra K, Thakur M, Sharma LK. Future simulated landscape predicts habitat loss for the Golden Langur (Trachypithecus geei): A range level analysis for an endangered primate. Sci Total Environ 2022; 826:154081. [PMID: 35218816 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Trachypithecus geei Khajuria, 1956 or Golden langur are an endangered colobine primate species that are distributed in the transboundary region of Bhutan and India. The species is severely threatened because of increasing habitat fragmentation and isolation across its entire range, especially the populations in Assam, India. The distribution range of the species has not been updated for the last two decades, nor is there any proper evaluation of the habitat requirements for the species. Therefore, we mapped the habitat suitability for the species across its entire distribution and projected its habitat suitability on the simulated landscape for the future (2031). The results indicate that out of the total range extent (66,320 km2), only 12,265 km2 (18.49%) is suitable for the species at present, which will further be reduced to 8884 km2 by the year 2031, indicating major range contraction. These suitable habitats are largely scattered and fragmented in southern range of the species. Among the predictors used, the distance to evergreen and deciduous broadleaf forest was the strongest predictor out of the 35 used for model building. Moreover, land use and land cover were found to be more informative than the climatic variables. Much of the suitable habitats of the species are located outside the protected area network in the landscape. Therefore, we identified landscape configurations and suitable habitat areas for the future conservation and monitoring of Golden Langur in the protected areas of its range.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ritam Dutta
- Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata 700053, India
| | | | - Vineet Kumar
- Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata 700053, India
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Arekar K, Parigi A, Karanth KP. Understanding the convoluted evolutionary history of the capped-golden langur lineage (Cercopithecidae: Colobinae)†. J Genet 2021; 100. [DOI: 10.1007/s12041-021-01329-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Shil J, Biswas J, Nag S, Kumara HN. Persistence of Trachypithecus geei (Mammalia: Primates: Cercopithecidae) in a rubber plantation in Assam, India. J Threat Taxa 2021. [DOI: 10.11609/jott.7273.13.7.18679-18686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-human primates are highly threatened as a result of habitat destruction, agricultural expansion, industrial development, large-scale build-ups and wildlife trafficking. Nearly 60% of all primates are threatened and many are found in habitats with some form of human modifications (e.g., croplands and plantations). The adaptability of primates to survive in human-modified habitats is thus a key to determine their persistence in anthropogenic landscapes. In this study, we examined the population number and age-sex composition of the ‘Endangered’ Golden Langur Trachypithecus geei in a rubber plantation in the Kokrajhar District in Assam, India in 2016, and compared with past data of the langur population and demographics from the same location to better understand the population dynamics, demographic characters and persistence of the Golden Langurs in the rubber plantation. In 2016, we recorded six groups of Golden Langurs totaling 78 individuals with a mean group size of 13.00±4.00SD. Of the total population, 10.29% were adult males, 41.18% were adult females, 32.35% were juveniles and 16.18% were infants. The overall population growth from 1997 to 2016 was estimated to be 5.54% per year. Habitat matrices of rubber plantations with natural forest patches are important in the fragmented landscape for the persistence of Golden Langur populations. They may also act as a corridor for the langurs to move between the fragments and as food resources, highlighting the importance of such matrices for the langurs outside protected areas. Population monitoring and ecological studies in such matrices would therefore be needed for the successful implementation of targeted management strategies for the conservation of these threatened langurs.
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Roos C, Helgen KM, Miguez RP, Thant NML, Lwin N, Lin AK, Lin A, Yi KM, Soe P, Hein ZM, Myint MNN, Ahmed T, Chetry D, Urh M, Veatch EG, Duncan N, Kamminga P, Chua MAH, Yao L, Matauschek C, Meyer D, Liu ZJ, Li M, Nadler T, Fan PF, Quyet LK, Hofreiter M, Zinner D, Momberg F. Mitogenomic phylogeny of the Asian colobine genus Trachypithecus with special focus on Trachypithecus phayrei (Blyth, 1847) and description of a new species. Zool Res 2021; 41:656-669. [PMID: 33171548 PMCID: PMC7671912 DOI: 10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2020.254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Trachypithecus, which currently contains 20 species divided into four groups, is the most speciose and geographically dispersed genus among Asian colobines. Despite several morphological and molecular studies, however, its evolutionary history and phylogeography remain poorly understood. Phayre’s langur (Trachypithecus phayrei) is one of the most widespread members of the genus, but details on its actual distribution and intraspecific taxonomy are limited and controversial. Thus, to elucidate the evolutionary history of Trachypithecus and to clarify the intraspecific taxonomy and distribution of T. phayrei, we sequenced 41 mitochondrial genomes from georeferenced fecal samples and museum specimens, including two holotypes. Phylogenetic analyses revealed a robustly supported phylogeny of Trachypithecus, suggesting that the T. pileatus group branched first, followed by the T. francoisi group, and the T. cristatus and T. obscurus groups most recently. The four species groups diverged from each other 4.5–3.1 million years ago (Ma), while speciation events within these groups occurred much more recently (1.6–0.3 Ma). Within T. phayrei, we found three clades that diverged 1.0–0.9 Ma, indicating the existence of three rather than two taxa. Following the phylogenetic species concept and based on genetic, morphological, and ecological differences, we elevate the T. phayrei subspecies to species level, describe a new species from central Myanmar, and refine the distribution of the three taxa. Overall, our study highlights the importance of museum specimens and provides new insights not only into the evolutionary history of T. phayrei but the entire Trachypithecus genus as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Roos
- Primate Genetics Laboratory, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Goettingen 37077, Germany.,Gene Bank of Primates, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Goettingen 37077, Germany.,Chances for Nature (CfN), Goettingen 37073, Germany. E-mail:
| | - Kristofer M Helgen
- Australian Museum Research Institute, Australian Museum, Sydney, New South Wales 2010, Australia.,Natural History Museum, London SW7 BD, UK
| | | | - Naw May Lay Thant
- Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) - Myanmar Program, Yangon 11041, Myanmar
| | - Ngwe Lwin
- Fauna & Flora International (FFI) - Myanmar Programme, Yangon 11201, Myanmar
| | - Aung Ko Lin
- Fauna & Flora International (FFI) - Myanmar Programme, Yangon 11201, Myanmar
| | - Aung Lin
- Fauna & Flora International (FFI) - Myanmar Programme, Yangon 11201, Myanmar
| | - Khin Mar Yi
- Popa Mountain Park, Nature and Wildlife Conservation Division, Forest Department, Popa 05242, Myanmar
| | - Paing Soe
- World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) - Myanmar, Yangon 11191, Myanmar
| | - Zin Mar Hein
- World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) - Myanmar, Yangon 11191, Myanmar
| | | | - Tanvir Ahmed
- Department of Zoology, Jagannath University, Dhaka 1100, Bangladesh
| | - Dilip Chetry
- Primate Research and Conservation Division, Aaranyak, Guwahati, Assam 781028, India
| | - Melina Urh
- Primate Genetics Laboratory, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Goettingen 37077, Germany
| | - E Grace Veatch
- Department of Anthropology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.,Department of Anthropology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
| | - Neil Duncan
- Department of Mammalogy, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024, USA
| | - Pepijn Kamminga
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden 2333 CR, The Netherlands
| | - Marcus A H Chua
- Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117377, Singapore.,Department of Environmental Science and Policy, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA
| | - Lu Yao
- Department of Mammalogy, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024, USA
| | | | - Dirk Meyer
- Chances for Nature (CfN), Goettingen 37073, Germany
| | - Zhi-Jin Liu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Ming Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.,Center for Excellence in Animal Evolution and Genetics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650223, China
| | - Tilo Nadler
- Cuc Phuong Commune, Nho Quan District, Ninh Binh Province, Vietnam
| | - Peng-Fei Fan
- School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510275, China
| | - Le Khac Quyet
- Center for Biodiversity Conservation and Endangered Species, Ho-Chi-Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Michael Hofreiter
- Institute for Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam 14476, Germany
| | - Dietmar Zinner
- Cognitive Ethology Laboratory, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Goettingen 37077, Germany.,Leibniz Science Campus Primate Cognition, Goettingen 37077, Germany.,Department of Primate Cognition, Georg-August-University, Goettingen 37083, Germany
| | - Frank Momberg
- Fauna & Flora International (FFI) - Asia-Pacific Programme, Yangon 11201, Myanmar
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Khanal L, Chalise MK, Wan T, Jiang X. Riverine barrier effects on population genetic structure of the Hanuman langur (Semnopithecus entellus) in the Nepal Himalaya. BMC Evol Biol 2018; 18:159. [PMID: 30382913 PMCID: PMC6211570 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-018-1280-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Past climatological events and contemporary geophysical barriers shape the distribution, population genetic structure, and evolutionary history of many organisms. The Himalayan region, frequently referred to as the third pole of the Earth, has experienced large-scale climatic oscillations in the past and bears unique geographic, topographic, and climatic areas. The influences of the Pleistocene climatic fluctuations and present-day geographical barriers such as rivers in shaping the demographic history and population genetic structure of organisms in the Nepal Himalaya have not yet been documented. Hence, we examined the effects of late-Quaternary glacial-interglacial cycles and riverine barriers on the genetic composition of Hanuman langurs (Semnopithecus entellus), a colobine primate with a wide range of altitudinal distribution across the Nepalese Himalaya, using the mitochondrial DNA control region (CR, 1090 bp) and cytochrome B (CYTB, 1140 bp) sequences combined with paleodistribution modeling. RESULTS DNA sequences were successfully retrieved from 67 non-invasively collected fecal samples belonging to 18 wild Hanuman langur troops covering the entire distribution range of the species in Nepal. We identified 37 haplotypes from the concatenated CR + CYTB (2230 bp) sequences, with haplotype and nucleotide diversities of 0.958 ± 0.015 and 0.0237 ± 0.0008, respectively. The troops were clustered into six major clades corresponding to their river-isolated spatial distribution, with the significantly high genetic variation among these clades confirming the barrier effects of the snow-fed Himalayan rivers on genetic structuring. Analysis of demographic history projected a decrease in population size with the onset of the last glacial maximum (LGM); and, in accordance with the molecular analyses, paleodistribution modeling revealed a range shift in its suitable habitat downward/southward during the LGM. The complex genetic structure among the populations of central Nepal, and the stable optimal habitat through the last interglacial period to the present suggest that the central mid-hills of Nepal served as glacial refugia for the Hanuman langur. CONCLUSIONS Hanuman langurs of the Nepal Himalaya region exhibit high genetic diversity, with their population genetic structure is strongly shaped by riverine barrier effects beyond isolation by distance; hence, this species demands detailed future phylogenetic study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laxman Khanal
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650223 Yunnan China
- Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650223 China
- Central Department of Zoology, Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, 44613 Nepal
| | - Mukesh Kumar Chalise
- Central Department of Zoology, Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, 44613 Nepal
| | - Tao Wan
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650223 Yunnan China
| | - Xuelong Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650223 Yunnan China
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources, Laboratory of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yunnan University, Kunming, China
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Mekonnen A, Rueness EK, Stenseth NC, Fashing PJ, Bekele A, Hernandez-Aguilar RA, Missbach R, Haus T, Zinner D, Roos C. Population genetic structure and evolutionary history of Bale monkeys (Chlorocebus djamdjamensis) in the southern Ethiopian Highlands. BMC Evol Biol 2018; 18:106. [PMID: 29986642 PMCID: PMC6038355 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-018-1217-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Species with a restricted geographic distribution, and highly specialized habitat and dietary requirements, are particularly vulnerable to extinction. The Bale monkey (Chlorocebus djamdjamensis) is a little-known arboreal, bamboo-specialist primate endemic to the southern Ethiopian Highlands. While most Bale monkeys inhabit montane forests dominated by bamboo, some occupy forest fragments where bamboo is much less abundant. We used mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences to analyse the genetic structure and evolutionary history of Bale monkeys covering the majority of their remaining distribution range. We analysed 119 faecal samples from their two main habitats, continuous forest (CF) and fragmented forests (FF), and sequenced 735 bp of the hypervariable region I (HVI) of the control region. We added 12 orthologous sequences from congeneric vervets (C. pygerythrus) and grivets (C. aethiops) as well as animals identified as hybrids, previously collected in southern Ethiopia. Results We found strong genetic differentiation (with no shared mtDNA haplotypes) between Bale monkey populations from CF and FF. Phylogenetic analyses revealed two distinct and highly diverged clades: a Bale monkey clade containing only Bale monkeys from CF and a green monkey clade where Bale monkeys from FF cluster with grivets and vervets. Analyses of demographic history revealed that Bale monkey populations (CF and FF) have had stable population sizes over an extended period, but have all recently experienced population declines. Conclusions The pronounced genetic structure and deep mtDNA divergence between Bale monkey populations inhabiting CF and FF are likely to be the results of hybridization and introgression of the FF population with parapatric Chlorocebus species, in contrast to the CF population, which was most likely not impacted by hybridization. Hybridization in the FF population was probably enhanced by an alteration of the bamboo forest habitat towards a more open woodland habitat, which enabled the parapatric Chlorocebus species to invade the Bale monkey's range and introgress the FF population. We therefore propose that the CF and FF Bale monkey populations should be managed as separate units when developing conservation strategies for this threatened species. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12862-018-1217-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Addisu Mekonnen
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066, Blindern, N-0316, Oslo, Norway. .,Department of Zoological Sciences, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box: 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
| | - Eli K Rueness
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066, Blindern, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Nils Chr Stenseth
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066, Blindern, N-0316, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Zoological Sciences, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box: 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Peter J Fashing
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066, Blindern, N-0316, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Anthropology and Environmental Studies Program, California State University Fullerton, Fullerton, CA, 92834, USA
| | - Afework Bekele
- Department of Zoological Sciences, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box: 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - R Adriana Hernandez-Aguilar
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066, Blindern, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Rose Missbach
- Primate Genetics Laboratory, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Tanja Haus
- Primate Genetics Laboratory, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany.,Cognitive Ethology Laboratory, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Dietmar Zinner
- Cognitive Ethology Laboratory, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Christian Roos
- Primate Genetics Laboratory, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany.,Gene Bank of Primates, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
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Khanal L, Chalise MK, He K, Acharya BK, Kawamoto Y, Jiang X. Mitochondrial DNA analyses and ecological niche modeling reveal post-LGM expansion of the Assam macaque (Macaca assamensis) in the foothills of Nepal Himalaya. Am J Primatol 2018. [PMID: 29536562 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Genetic diversity of a species is influenced by multiple factors, including the Quaternary glacial-interglacial cycles and geophysical barriers. Such factors are not yet well documented for fauna from the southern border of the Himalayan region. This study used mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences and ecological niche modeling (ENM) to explore how the late Pleistocene climatic fluctuations and complex geography of the Himalayan region have shaped genetic diversity, population genetic structure, and demographic history of the Nepalese population of Assam macaques (Macaca assamensis) in the Himalayan foothills. A total of 277 fecal samples were collected from 39 wild troops over almost the entire distribution of the species in Nepal. The mtDNA fragment encompassing the complete control region (1121 bp) was recovered from 208 samples, thus defining 54 haplotypes. Results showed low nucleotide diversity (0.0075 ± SD 0.0001) but high haplotype diversity (0.965 ± SD 0.004). The mtDNA sequences revealed a shallow population genetic structure with a moderate but statistically significant effect of isolation by distance. Demographic history analyses using mtDNA sequences suggested a post-pleistocene population expansion. Paleodistribution reconstruction projected that the potential habitat of the Assam macaque was confined to the lower elevations of central Nepal during the Last Glacial Maximum. With the onset of the Holocene climatic optimum, the glacial refugia population experienced eastward range expansion to higher elevations. We conclude that the low genetic diversity and shallow population genetic structure of the Assam macaque population in the Nepal Himalaya region are the consequence of recent demographic and spatial expansion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laxman Khanal
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, P.R. China.,Kunming College of Life Science, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, P.R. China.,Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - Mukesh K Chalise
- Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal
| | - Kai He
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, P.R. China
| | - Bipin K Acharya
- Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Yoshi Kawamoto
- Department of Evolution and Phylogeny, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Xuelong Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, P.R. China.,State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources, Laboratory of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yunnan University, Kunming, P.R. China
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