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Zhan W, Chen B, Wu X, Yang Z, Lin C, Lin J, Guan X. Wood identification of Cyclobalanopsis (Endl.) Oerst based on microscopic features and CTGAN-enhanced explainable machine learning models. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1203836. [PMID: 37484454 PMCID: PMC10361066 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1203836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023]
Abstract
Introduction Accurate and fast identification of wood at the species level is critical for protecting and conserving tree species resources. The current identification methods are inefficient, costly, and complex. Methods A wood species identification model based on wood anatomy and using the Cyclobalanopsis genus wood cell geometric dataset was proposed. The model was enhanced by the CTGAN deep learning algorithm and used a simulated cell geometric feature dataset. The machine learning models BPNN and SVM were trained respectively for recognition of three Cyclobalanopsis species with simulated vessel cells and simulated wood fiber cells. Results The SVM model and BPNN model achieved recognition accuracy of 96.4% and 99.6%, respectively, on the real dataset, using the CTGAN-generated vessel dataset. The BPNN model and SVM model achieved recognition accuracy of 75.5% and 77.9% on real dataset, respectively, using the CTGAN-generated wood fiber dataset. Discussion The machine learning model trained based on the enhanced cell geometric feature data by CTGAN achieved good recognition of Cyclobalanopsis, with the SVM model having a higher prediction accuracy than BPNN. The machine learning models were interpreted based on LIME to explore how they identify tree species based on wood cell geometric features. This proposed model can be used for efficient and cost-effective identification of wood species in industrial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weihui Zhan
- College of Materials Engineering, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Bowen Chen
- College of Materials Engineering, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Xiaolian Wu
- College of Materials Engineering, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Zhen Yang
- College of Transportation and Civil Engineering, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Che Lin
- College of Materials Engineering, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Jinguo Lin
- College of Materials Engineering, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- National Forestry and Grassland Administration Key Laboratory of Plant Fiber Functional Materials, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Xin Guan
- College of Materials Engineering, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- National Forestry and Grassland Administration Key Laboratory of Plant Fiber Functional Materials, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
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Rakotonirina TJ, Viljoen E, Rakotonirina AH, Leong Pock Tsy JM, Radanielina T. A DNA barcode reference library for CITES listed Malagasy Dalbergia species. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e9887. [PMID: 36937058 PMCID: PMC10015365 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Revised: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2023] Open
Abstract
On Madagascar, the illegal and unsustainable exploitation and illegal international trade of Dalbergia (rosewood) precious woods remain a serious conservation problem. Members of this genus are at high risk of extinction as a consequence of logging, mining, and slash and burn agriculture. Morphological identification of these Malagasy species is difficult in the absence of flowers and fruits, especially in the case of cut trees, sawn wood, and finished product. In this study, we use molecular barcoding to identify the Dalbergia species with the intent to contribute to the control of their illegal trade. Thirty-six Dalbergia samples representing 12 Malagasy species of which 11 have high commercial value, were collected to test the efficacy of a region of the plastid genome (rbcL) and a nuclear-transcribed ITS for barcoding. These widely used markers, as well as DNA barcoding gaps, "best match" and "best close match" approaches, and the neighbor-joining method were employed. All samples were amplified and sequenced using the two markers. Using a single locus, the "best match" and "best close match" approaches revealed that ITS has high discriminatory power within the tested Malagasy species. The combination of rbcL + ITS revealed 100% species discrimination. This study confirms that ITS alone and in combination with chloroplast barcode rbcL allow non-ambiguous identification for the 12 species studied. The results contribute to the development of DNA barcoding as a useful tool to identify Malagasy Dalbergia and suggest that the approach developed should be expanded to all 56 potentially exploited species in reference to international CITES requirements and the sustainable management of valuable resources.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Erika Viljoen
- Inqaba Biotechnical Industries (Pty) LtdPretoriaSouth Africa
| | | | | | - Tendro Radanielina
- Plant Molecular Biology Lab, Department of Plant Biology and EcologyUniversity of AntananarivoAntananarivoMadagascar
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Tropical Wood Species Recognition: A Dataset of Macroscopic Images. DATA 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/data7080111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Forests are of incalculable value due to the ecosystem services they provide to humanity such as carbon storage, climate regulation and participation in the hydrological cycle. The threat to forests grows as the population increases and the activities that are carried out in it, such as: cattle rearing, illegal trafficking, deforestation and harvesting. Moreover, the environmental authorities do not have sufficient capacity to exercise strict control over wood production due to the vast variety of timber species within the countries, the lack of tools to verify timber species in the supply chain and the limited available and labelled digital data of the forest species. This paper presents a set of digital macroscopic images of eleven tropical forest species, which can be used as support at checkpoints, to carry out studies and research based on macroscopic analysis of cross-sectional images of tree species such as: dendrology, forestry, as well as algorithms of artificial intelligence. Images were acquired in wood warehouses with a digital magnifying glass following a protocol used by the Colombian Ministry of Environment, as well as the USA Forest Services and the International Association of Wood Anatomists. The dataset contains more than 8000 images with resolution of 640 × 480 pixels which includes 3.9 microns per pixel, and an area of (2.5 × 1.9) square millimeters where the anatomical features are exposed. The dataset presents great usability for academics and researchers in the forestry sector, wood anatomists and personnel who work with computational models, without neglecting forest surveillance institutions such as regional autonomous corporations and the Ministry of the Environment.
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Liu M, Li Y. Study on the effect of income perception on cleaner-production fraud. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:44638-44652. [PMID: 35137314 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-18776-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
We investigated a single-cycle product supply chain in a game model, where a supplier is the leader. By innovatively introducing cleaner production fraudulent income perception factor into a game model, we studied the mechanism of the effect of enterprise social responsibility and environmental awareness on cleaner production fraud. The results showed that the income of retailers and suppliers changes under different perceptions of fraudulent income. That is, the value of cleaner production fraudulent income perception factor will affect the enterprise's choice of differentiation strategy. When the enterprise's sense of social responsibility is weak, it is more likely to choose cleaner production fraud. Conversely, under the constraints of high social responsibility, it more likely avoids production fraud. Regarding government supervision, the income of suppliers and retailers changes under different government penalties. Furthermore, a reasonable punishment for cleaner production fraud can reduce such violations. However, after the punishment reaches a level, the efficiency of supervision begins to decline. In views of that, improving enterprise social responsibility through institutional reform is a more effective way to reduce cleaner production fraud. To contribute to a healthy competitive market environment, government supervision should establish a feedback mechanism, and make timely adjustments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Liu
- The Center for Economic Research, Shandong University, Jinan, 250000, Shandong, China
| | - Yemei Li
- The Center for Economic Research, Shandong University, Jinan, 250000, Shandong, China.
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Costa A, Giraldo G, Bishell A, He T, Kirker G, Wiedenhoeft AC. Organellar microcapture to extract nuclear and plastid DNA from recalcitrant wood specimens and trace evidence. PLANT METHODS 2022; 18:51. [PMID: 35443731 PMCID: PMC9019980 DOI: 10.1186/s13007-022-00885-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Illegal logging is a global crisis with significant environmental, economic, and social consequences. Efforts to combat it call for forensic methods to determine species identity, provenance, and individual identification of wood specimens throughout the forest products supply chain. DNA-based methodologies are the only tools with the potential to answer all three questions and the only ones that can be calibrated "non-destructively" by using leaves or other plant tissue and take advantage of publicly available DNA sequence databases. Despite the potential that DNA-based methods represent for wood forensics, low DNA yield from wood remains a limiting factor because, when compared to other plant tissues, wood has few living DNA-containing cells at functional maturity, it often has PCR-inhibiting extractives, and industrial processing of wood degrades DNA. To overcome these limitations, we developed a technique-organellar microcapture-to mechanically isolate intact nuclei and plastids from wood for subsequent DNA extraction, amplification, and sequencing. RESULTS Here we demonstrate organellar microcapture wherein we remove individual nuclei from parenchyma cells in wood (fresh and aged) and leaves of Carya ovata and Tilia americana, amyloplasts from Carya wood, and chloroplasts from kale (Brassica sp.) leaf midribs. ITS (773 bp), ITS1 (350 bp), ITS2 (450 bp), and rbcL (620 bp) were amplified via polymerase chain reaction, sequenced, and heuristic searches against the NCBI database were used to confirm that recovered DNA corresponded to each taxon. CONCLUSION Organellar microcapture, while too labor-intensive for routine extraction of many specimens, successfully recovered intact nuclei from wood samples collected more than sixty-five years ago, plastids from fresh sapwood and leaves, and presents great potential for DNA extraction from recalcitrant plant samples such as tissues rich in secondary metabolites, old specimens (archaeological, herbarium, and xylarium specimens), or trace evidence previously considered too small for analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Costa
- Department of Sustainable Bioproducts, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS USA
- Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, WI USA
| | - Giovanny Giraldo
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA
- Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, WI USA
| | | | - Tuo He
- Department of Wood Anatomy and Utilization Chinese Research Institute of Wood Industry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, China
- Wood Collections (WOODPEDIA), Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing, China
| | - Grant Kirker
- Department of Sustainable Bioproducts, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS USA
- Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, WI USA
| | - Alex C. Wiedenhoeft
- Department of Sustainable Bioproducts, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS USA
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA
- Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, WI USA
- Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN USA
- Departamento de Ciências Biológicas (Botânica), Universidade Estadual Paulista–Botucatu, São Paulo, Brasil
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Caveat emptor: On the Need for Baseline Quality Standards in Computer Vision Wood Identification. FORESTS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/f13040632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Computer vision wood identification (CVWID) has focused on laboratory studies reporting consistently high model accuracies with greatly varying input data quality, data hygiene, and wood identification expertise. Employing examples from published literature, we demonstrate that the highly optimistic model performance in prior works may be attributed to evaluating the wrong functionality—wood specimen identification rather than the desired wood species or genus identification—using limited datasets with data hygiene practices that violate the requirement of clear separation between training and evaluation data. Given the lack of a rigorous framework for a valid methodology and its objective evaluation, we present a set of minimal baseline quality standards for performing and reporting CVWID research and development that can enable valid, objective, and fair evaluation of current and future developments in this rapidly developing field. To elucidate the quality standards, we present a critical revisitation of a prior CVWID study of North American ring-porous woods and an exemplar study incorporating best practices on a new dataset covering the same set of woods. The proposed baseline quality standards can help translate models with high in silico performance to field-operational CVWID systems and allow stakeholders in research, industry, and government to make informed, evidence-based modality-agnostic decisions.
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Sadgrove NJ. Honest nutraceuticals, cosmetics, therapies, and foods (NCTFs): standardization and safety of natural products. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 62:4326-4341. [PMID: 33480270 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1874286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
With the increasing demand for natural products by the consumer in the marketplace it is necessary to see a proportional increase in behind-the-scenes science to ensure that the ideology of safety and honesty, that is justifiably expected by the wider public, is adequately satisfied. It is of essence to have a fair yet firm governance of nutraceuticals, cosmetics, therapies, and foods. However, with increasing sophistications in adulteration and "claim" loopholes that make it easier for adulterated or counterfeited natural products to be "fudged" to meet the pharmacopeia standards, governance protocols must utilize an "identification and authentication" approach that goes beyond the Pharmacopeia standards to help regulate and transparently communicate natural products in the commercial context. While it is becoming a rat race in keeping commercial natural products honest, modern technology can support authenticators and adequately defeat these challenges.
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Ravindran P, Owens FC, Wade AC, Shmulsky R, Wiedenhoeft AC. Towards Sustainable North American Wood Product Value Chains, Part I: Computer Vision Identification of Diffuse Porous Hardwoods. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:758455. [PMID: 35126406 PMCID: PMC8815006 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.758455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Availability of and access to wood identification expertise or technology is a critical component for the design and implementation of practical, enforceable strategies for effective promotion, monitoring and incentivisation of sustainable practices and conservation efforts in the forest products value chain. To address this need in the context of the multi-billion-dollar North American wood products industry 22-class, image-based, deep learning models for the macroscopic identification of North American diffuse porous hardwoods were trained for deployment on the open-source, field-deployable XyloTron platform using transverse surface images of specimens from three different xylaria and evaluated on specimens from a fourth xylarium that did not contribute training data. Analysis of the model performance, in the context of the anatomy of the woods considered, demonstrates immediate readiness of the technology developed herein for field testing in a human-in-the-loop monitoring scenario. Also proposed are strategies for training, evaluating, and advancing the state-of-the-art for developing an expansive, continental scale model for all the North American hardwoods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prabu Ravindran
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, United States
- Forest Products Laboratory, Center for Wood Anatomy Research, USDA Forest Service, Madison, WI, United States
- *Correspondence: Prabu Ravindran,
| | - Frank C. Owens
- Department of Sustainable Bioproducts, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS, United States
| | - Adam C. Wade
- Department of Sustainable Bioproducts, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS, United States
| | - Rubin Shmulsky
- Department of Sustainable Bioproducts, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS, United States
| | - Alex C. Wiedenhoeft
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, United States
- Forest Products Laboratory, Center for Wood Anatomy Research, USDA Forest Service, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Sustainable Bioproducts, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS, United States
- Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
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Ravindran P, Thompson BJ, Soares RK, Wiedenhoeft AC. The XyloTron: Flexible, Open-Source, Image-Based Macroscopic Field Identification of Wood Products. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 11:1015. [PMID: 32754178 PMCID: PMC7366520 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.01015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Forests, estimated to contain two thirds of the world's biodiversity, face existential threats due to illegal logging and land conversion. Efforts to combat illegal logging and to support sustainable value chains are hampered by a critical lack of affordable and scalable technologies for field-level inspection of wood and wood products. To meet this need we present the XyloTron, a complete, self-contained, multi-illumination, field-deployable, open-source platform for field imaging and identification of forest products at the macroscopic scale. The XyloTron platform integrates an imaging system built with off-the-shelf components, flexible illumination options with visible and UV light sources, software for camera control, and deep learning models for identification. We demonstrate the capabilities of the XyloTron platform with example applications for automatic wood and charcoal identification using visible light and human-mediated wood identification based on ultra-violet illumination and discuss applications in field imaging, metrology, and material characterization of other substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prabu Ravindran
- Center for Wood Anatomy Research, USDA Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Blaise J. Thompson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Richard K. Soares
- Center for Wood Anatomy Research, USDA Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Alex C. Wiedenhoeft
- Center for Wood Anatomy Research, USDA Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, United States
- Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
- Departamento de Ciências Biolôgicas (Botânica), Universidade Estadual Paulista, Botucatu, Brazil
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Predicting the geographic origin of Spanish Cedar (Cedrela odorata L.) based on DNA variation. CONSERV GENET 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10592-020-01282-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Abstract
This technical note determines the feasibility of using an InceptionV4_ResNetV2 convolutional neural network (CNN) to correctly identify hardwood species from macroscopic images. The method is composed of a commodity smartphone fitted with a 14× macro lens for photography. The end-grains of ten different North American hardwood species were photographed to create a dataset of 1869 images. The stratified 5-fold cross-validation machine-learning method was used, in which the number of testing samples varied from 341 to 342. Data augmentation was performed on-the-fly for each training set by rotating, zooming, and flipping images. It was found that the CNN could correctly identify hardwood species based on macroscopic images of its end-grain with an adjusted accuracy of 92.60%. With the current growing of machine-learning field, this model can then be readily deployed in a mobile application for field wood identification.
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Machine Learning Models with Quantitative Wood Anatomy Data Can Discriminate between Swietenia macrophylla and Swietenia mahagoni. FORESTS 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/f11010036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Illegal logging and associated trade aggravate the over-exploitation of Swietenia species, of which S. macrophylla King, S. mahagoni (L.) Jacq, and S. humilis Zucc. have been listed in Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Appendix Ⅱ. Implementation of CITES necessitates the development of efficient forensic tools to identify wood species accurately, and ideally ones readily deployable in wood anatomy laboratories across the world. Herein, a method using quantitative wood anatomy data in combination with machine learning models to discriminate between three Swietenia species is presented, in addition to a second model focusing only on the two historically more important species S. mahagoni and S. macrophylla. The intra- and inter-specific variations in nine quantitative wood anatomical characters were measured and calculated based on 278 wood specimens, and four machine learning classifiers—Decision Tree C5.0, Naïve Bayes (NB), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and Artificial Neural Network (ANN)—were used to discriminate between the species. Among these species, S. macrophylla exhibited the largest intraspecific variation, and all three species showed at least partly overlapping values for all nine characters. SVM performed the best of all the classifiers, with an overall accuracy of 91.4% and a per-species correct identification rate of 66.7%, 95.0%, and 80.0% for S. humilis, S. macrophylla, and S. mahagoni, respectively. The two-species model discriminated between S. macrophylla and S. mahagoni with accuracies of over 90.0% using SVM. These accuracies are lower than perfect forensic certainty but nonetheless demonstrate that quantitative wood anatomy data in combination with machine learning models can be applied as an efficient tool to discriminate anatomically between similar species in the wood anatomy laboratory. It is probable that a range of previously anatomically inseparable species may become identifiable by incorporating in-depth analysis of quantitative characters and appropriate statistical classifiers.
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