Fate of nitrogen species in nitrate reduction by nanoscale zero valent iron and characterization of the reaction kinetics

Nitrate Removal by Zero-Valent Metals: A Comprehensive Review

Nitrate is a widespread water contaminant that can pose environmental and health risks. Various conventional techniques can be applied for the removal of nitrate from water and wastewater, such as biological denitrification, ion exchange, nanofiltration, and reverse osmosis. Compared to traditional methods, the chemical denitrification through zero-valent metals offers various advantages, such as lower costs, simplicity of management, and high efficiencies. The most utilized material for chemical denitrification is zero-valent iron (ZVI). Aluminium (ZVA), magnesium (ZVM), copper (ZVC), and zinc (ZVZ) are alternative zero-valent metals that are studied for the removal of nitrate from water as well as from aqueous solutions. To the best of our knowledge, a comprehensive work on the use of the various zero-valent materials that are employed for the removal of nitrate is still missing. Therefore, in the present review, the most recent papers concerning the use of zero-valent materials for chemical denitrification were analysed. The studies that dealt with zero-valent iron were discussed by considering microscopic (mZVI) and nanoscopic (nZVI) forms. For each Fe0 form, the effects of the initial pH, the presence or absence of dissolved oxygen, the initial nitrate concentration, the temperature, and the dissolved ions on the nitrate removal process were separately evaluated. Finally, the different materials that were employed as support for the nanoparticles were examined. For the other zero-valent metals tested, a detailed description of the works present in the literature was carried out. A comparison of the various features that are related to each considered material was also made.

Denitrification using permeable reactive barriers with organic substrate or zero-valent iron fillers: controlling mechanisms, challenges, and future perspectives

Nitrate as a diffusive agricultural contaminant has been causing substantial groundwater quality deterioration worldwide. In situ groundwater remediation techniques using permeable reactive barriers (PRBs) have attracted increasing interest. Particularly, PRBs based on biological denitrification, using the organic substrate as a biostimulator, and chemical nitrate reduction, using zero-valent iron (ZVI) as a reductant, are two major PRB approaches for groundwater denitrification. This review paper analyzed the published studies over the past 10 years (2010-2020) using laboratory, modeling, and field-scale approaches to explore the performance and mechanisms of these two types of PRBs. Important factors affecting the denitrification efficiencies as well as the influential mechanisms were discussed. Several research gaps have been identified and further research needs are discussed in the end.

Effect of low temperature on abiotic and biotic nitrate reduction by zero-valent Iron

The effect of low temperatures on abiotic and biotic nitrate (NO₃^-) reduction by zero-valent iron (ZVI) were examined at temperatures below 25 °C. The extent and rate of nitrate removal in batch ZVI reactors were determined in the presence and absence of microorganisms at 3.5, 10, 17, and 25 °C. Under anoxic conditions, NO₃^- reduction rates in both ZVI-only and ZVI-cell reactors declined as temperature decreased. In ZVI-only reactor, 62% and 17% of initial nitrate concentration were reduced in 6 days at 25 and 3.5 °C, respectively. The reduced nitrate was completely recovered as ammonium ions (NH₄⁺) at both temperatures. The temperature-dependent abiotic reduction rates enabled us to calculate the activation energy (E_a) using the Arrhenius relationship, which was 50 kJ/mol. Nitrate in ZVI-cell reactors was completely removed within 1-2 days at 25 and 10 °C, and 67% of reduction was achieved at 3.5 °C. Only 18-25% of the reduced nitrate was recovered as NH₄⁺ in the ZVI-cell reactors. Soluble iron concentrations (Fe²⁺ and Fe³⁺) in the ZVI reactors were also measured as the indicators of anaerobic corrosion. In the ZVI-cell reactors, soluble iron concentrations were 1.7 times higher than that in ZVI-only reactors at 25 °C, suggesting that the enhanced nitrate reduction in the ZVI-cell reactors may be partly due to increased redox activity (i.e., corrosion) on iron surfaces. Anaerobic corrosion of ZVI was also temperature-dependent as substantially lower concentrations of corrosion product were detected at lower incubation temperatures; however, microbially induced corrosion (MIC) of ZVI was much less impacted at lower temperatures than abiotic ZVI corrosion. This study demonstrated that ZVI-supported microbial denitrification is not only more sustainable at lower temperatures, but it becomes more dominant reaction for nitrate removal in microbial-ZVI systems at low temperatures.

New modeling of 3D quaternary type BaCuZnS-graphene-TiO2 (BCZS-G-T) composite for photosonocatalytic hydrogen evolution with scavenger effect

For the efficient evolution of hydrogen, we designed a 3D quaternary BaCuZnS-graphene-TiO₂ (BCZS-G-T) composite by an ultrasonic method. Herein, we prepared a quaternary material to minimize the bandgap energy and size. We characterized the "as-prepared" composites by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), UV-vis diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS), photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The high hydrogen evolution was attributed to the 3D quaternary BCZS-G-T composite with small bandgap energy because of its high photoelectron recombination properties. In addition, we demonstrated the combination effects with photocatalytic and sonocatalytic treatments with a scavenger. This work highlights the potential application of quaternary graphene-based composites in the field of energy conversion.

Nitrate reduction via micro-electrolysis on Zn-Ag bimetal combined with photo-assistance

A selective and efficient chemical reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas using micro-electrolysis on ZnAg combined with a photo-assisted reduction in the presence of formic acid was investigated. The 99.58% removal of nitrate, 0.073 min^-1 of rate constant and 94.3% nitrogen selectivity were achieved in Zn-Ag/hv/HCOOH system under the initial pH 2.5, 13.8 mmol/L of formic acid and 60 g/L of Zn-0.06%Ag dose at 60 min. The Zn-Ag/hv/HCOOH system had the highest removal rate and nitrogen selectivity for nitrate reduction compared with the alone or two combinations of ZnAg bimetals, formic acid, and UV-A. Furthermore, the co-existence anions of HCO₃^- and CO₃^2- showed a negative effect on nitrate reduction while SO₄^2- had slightly promoted the reduction process. During the nitrate reduction by Zn-Ag/hv/HCOOH process, rapid reduction of NO₃^- to NO₂^- was primarily caused by ZnAg bimetal. Subsequently, the conversion of NO₂^- to N₂ was mainly owing to the produced CO₂^- by the reaction of formic acid and UV-A. The results suggested a novel strategy of chemical reduction combined with photoreduction for denitrification with high reaction kinetic as well as high nitrogen gas selectivity.

Synthesis of Fe/Ni Bimetallic Nanoparticles and Application to the Catalytic Removal of Nitrates from Water

This work investigated the effectiveness of zerovalent iron and Fe/Ni bimetallic nanoparticles in the treatment of water polluted by a high concentration of nitrates. Nanoparticle synthesis was carried out by a sodium borohydride reduction method in the presence of sodium oleate as a surfactant. The particles were characterized by XRD and SEM. Batch experiments were conducted on water samples contaminated by 300 mg L⁻¹ of nitrate. The parameters investigated were the Fe/Ni dosage (0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4 g L⁻¹) and the reaction pH (unbuffered; buffered at pH = 3; initial pH = 3, 5, and 10). The results showed that almost complete nitrate removal (>99.8%) was always achieved after 15 min at a concentration of bimetallic nanoparticles higher than 0.2 g L⁻¹. The optimization of bimetallic nanoparticle dosage was carried out at a fixed pH. Kinetic study tests were then performed at different temperatures to assess the effect of temperature on the nitrate removal rate. By fixing the pH at acidic values and with an operating temperature of 303 K, nitrates were completely removed after 1 min of treatment.

Reduction of nitrate by zero valent iron (ZVI)-based materials: A review

Zero valent iron (ZVI) and ZVI-based materials have been widely used for the reduction of nitrate, a major contaminant commonly detected in groundwater and surface water. The reduction of nitrate by ZVI is influenced by various factors, such as the physical and chemical characteristics of ZVI and the operational parameters. There are some problems for the nitrate reduction by ZVI alone, for example, the formation of iron oxides on the surface of ZVI at high pH condition, which will inhibit the further reduction of nitrate; in addition, the end reduction product is mainly ammonium, which itself needs to be concerned. Several strategies, such as the optimization of the structure of ZVI composites and the addition of reducing assistants, have been proposed to increase the reduction efficiency and the selectivity of end product of nitrate reduction in a wide range of pH, especially under neutral pH condition. This review will mainly focus on the high efficient reduction of nitrate by ZVI-based materials. Firstly, the reduction of nitrate by ZVI alone was briefly introduced and discussed, including the influence of physical and chemical characteristics of ZVI and some operational parameters on the reduction efficiency of nitrate. Then, the strategies for enhancing the reduction efficiency and the N₂ selectivity of the reductive products of nitrate were systematically analyzed and evaluated, especially the optimization of the structure of ZVI composites (e.g., doped ZVI composite, supported ZVI composite and premagnetized ZVI), and the addition of reducing assistants (e.g., metal cations, ligand, hydrogen gas and light) were highlighted. Thirdly, the mechanisms and pathways of nitrate reduction were discussed. Finally, concluding remarks and some suggestions for the future research were proposed.

Glycerol-mediated synthesis of nanoscale zerovalent iron and its application for the simultaneous reduction of nitrate and alachlor

NZVI has long been used for the remediation of different groundwater contaminants but their tendency to get oxidized easily has always been a barrier to their reductive ability. In this work, we have made an attempt to enhance the aerobic stability of the nanoparticles by synthesizing them in a medium consisting of a viscous solvent, glycerol, and water. The XRD analysis of the nanoparticles reveals that the particles prepared in the presence of glycerol have a very thin coating of iron oxides on the outer surface of the nanoparticles in comparison with those prepared in the aqueous medium. These nanoparticles were applied for the simultaneous reduction of two groundwater contaminants, nitrate ions, and alachlor, which is an herbicide. Stock solutions of these two contaminants were prepared and then they were mixed in varying amounts and were treated by different doses of the nanoparticle. The optimized dose of the nanoparticles obtained for almost 97% removal of both the contaminants is 2.05 g/L. The studies showed that increasing the concentration of either of the contaminants while the other one was kept fixed led to a decrease in the removal efficiency. The studies conducted to see the effect of pH variation showed that the best removal can be achieved when the pH is 3 or even less than it, showing that acidic pH leads to higher removal values. Such nanoparticles which can be prepared easily at low-cost and can simultaneously act upon different contaminants are highly desired.

Optimizing the removal of nitrate from aqueous solutions via reduced graphite oxide-supported nZVI: synthesis, characterization, kinetics, and reduction mechanism

Graphene has been considered an ideal absorbent and excellent carrier for nanoparticles. Reduced graphite oxide (rGO)-supported nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI@rGO) is an effective material for removing nitrate from water. nZVI@rGO nanocomposites were prepared by a liquid-phase reduction method and then applied for nitrate-nitrogen (NO₃^--N) removal in aqueous solution under anaerobic conditions. The experimental results showed that the stability and activity of the nZVI@rGO nanocomposites were enhanced compared with those of nZVI. The influence of the reaction conditions, including the initial concentration of NO₃^--N, coexisting anions, initial pH of the solution, and water temperature, on NO₃^--N removal was also investigated by batch experiments. In a neutral or slightly alkaline environment, 90% of NO₃^--N at a concentration less than 50 mg/L could be removed within 1 h, and nitrogen production was approximately 15%. The process of NO₃^--N removal by nZVI@rGO fits well with different reaction kinetics. In addition, magnetite was the main oxidation product. RGO-supported nZVI might become a promising filler in the permeable reactive barrier process for groundwater remediation.

Removal of Nitrate from Drinking Water by Ion-Exchange Followed by nZVI-Based Reduction and Electrooxidation of the Ammonia Product to N2(g)

Ion-exchange (IX) is common for separating NO3− from drinking water. From both cost and environmental perspectives, the IX regeneration brine must be recycled, via nitrate reduction to N2(g). Nano zero-valent iron (nZVI) reduces nitrate efficiently to ammonia, under brine conditions. However, to be sustainable, the formed ammonia should be oxidized. Accordingly, a new process was developed, comprising IX separation, nZVI-based nitrate removal from the IX regeneration brine, followed by indirect ammonia electro-oxidation. The aim was to convert nitrate to N2(g) while allowing repeated usage of the NaCl brine for multiple IX cycles. All process steps were experimentally examined and shown to be feasible: nitrate was efficiently separated using IX, which was subsequently regenerated with the treated/recovered NaCl brine. The nitrate released to the brine reacted with nZVI, generating ammonia and Fe(II). Fresh nZVI particles were reproduced from the resulting brine, which contained Fe(II), Na+, Cl− and ammonia. The ammonia in the nZVI production procedure filtrate was indirectly electro-oxidized to N2(g) at the inherent high Cl− concentration, which prepared the brine for the next IX regeneration cycle. The dominant reaction between nZVI and NO3− was described best (Wilcoxon test) by 4Fe(s) + 10H+ + NO3− → 4Fe2+ + NH4+ + 3H2O, and proceeded at >5 mmol·L−1·min−1 at room temperature and 3 < pH < 5.

Kinetic Study of Nitrate Removal from Aqueous Solutions Using Copper-Coated Iron Nanoparticles

Nitrates are considered hazard compounds for human health due to their tendency to be reduced to nitrites, in particular in reducing environment. Nano zero valent iron (nZVI) represents an efficient and low-cost adsorbent/reductive agent for nitrate removal from groundwater and wastewaters and a little addition of a second metal species (Cu, Pd, Ni, Ag) has proven to increase process effectiveness, by enhancing stability and oxidation resistance of nanoparticles. In this work Cu/Fe nanoparticles were loaded in a NO₃^- solution (100 mg L^-1) and the removal efficiency was tested by monitoring nitrate concentration at selected time intervals. Results showed that the nitrate removal process involves both reduction and adsorption processes: the removal mechanism has been investigated, and the pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order-adsorption kinetic models were successfully tested.

Reduction of nitrate by NaY zeolite supported Fe, Cu/Fe and Mn/Fe nanoparticles

Nano particles Fe, Cu/Fe and Mn/Fe supported on NaY zeolite (F@Y, CF@Y, and MF@Y) were prepared by two-step processes consisting of ion exchange and liquid-phase reduction. The characterization by XRD, SEM-EDX and BET-N₂ adsorption demonstrated that Fe, Cu/Fe and Mn/Fe nano particles were successfully loaded onto NaY zeolite and exhibited larger BET surface area compared to nano-Fe⁰ (nZVI). Laboratory experiments showed that nitrate removal by metals@Y in unbuffered conditions reached nearly 100% at a dosage of 4g/L after 6h of reaction. Moreover, the nitrate removal was not sensitive to the initial solution pH. Even at a high pH of 9.0, metals@Y exhibited nitrate reduction above 94%. CF@Y demonstrated high N₂ selectivity, due to the high content of Cu (20wt%) and Fe (41wt%) in CF@Y and the highly active metallic sites on its surface with positive charge. Kinetic data showed a good fit to a first-order kinetic model during early reaction times. A close fit to both a second-order and an nth-order kinetic model was shown for the whole of the reaction period. The data suggest that both liquid phase mass transfer and the intrinsic reaction rate control the process of nitrate reduction by metals@Y.

Inhibition of nitrate reduction by NaCl adsorption on a nano-zero-valent iron surface during a concentrate treatment for water reuse

Nanoscale zero-valent iron (NZVI) has been considered as a possible material to treat water and wastewater. However, it is necessary to verify the effect of the matrix components in different types of target water. In this study, different effects depending on the sodium chloride (NaCl) concentration on reductions of nitrates and on the characteristics of NZVI were investigated. Although NaCl is known as a promoter of iron corrosion, a high concentration of NaCl (>3 g/L) has a significant inhibition effect on the degree of NZVI reactivity towards nitrate. The experimental results were interpreted by a Langmuir-Hinshelwood-Hougen-Watson reaction in terms of inhibition, and the decreased NZVI reactivity could be explained by the increase in the inhibition constant. As a result of a chloride concentration analysis, it was verified that 7.7-26.5% of chloride was adsorbed onto the surface of NZVI. Moreover, the change of the iron corrosion product under different NaCl concentrations was investigated by a surface analysis of spent NZVI. Magnetite was the main product, with a low NaCl concentration (0.5 g/L), whereas amorphous iron hydroxide was observed at a high concentration (12 g/L). Though the surface was changed to permeable iron hydroxide, the Fe(0) in the core was not completely oxidized. Therefore, the inhibition effect of NaCl could be explained as the competitive adsorption of chloride and nitrate.

A novel ultrasound assisted method in synthesis of NZVI particles

This research is about a novel ultrasound assisted method for synthesis of nano zero valent iron particles (NZVI). The materials were characterized using TEM, FESEM, XRD, BET and acoustic PSA. The effect of ultrasonic power, precursor/reductant concentration (NaBH4, FeSO4·7H2O) and delivery rate of NaBH4 on NZVI characteristics were investigated. Under high ultrasonic power the morphology of nano particles changed from spherical type to plate and needle type. Also, when high precursor/reductant and high ultrasonic power was used the particle size of NZVI decreased. The surface area of NZVI particles synthesized by ultrasonic method was increased when compared by the other method. From the XRD patterns it was found also the crystallinity of particles was poor.

Effects on nano zero-valent iron reactivity of interactions between hardness, alkalinity, and natural organic matter in reverse osmosis concentrate

Nanoscale zero-valent iron (NZVI) is considered to have potential to reduce nitrate in the concentrate generated by high pressure membrane processes aimed at water reuse. However, it is necessary to verify the effect of the matrix components in the concentrates on NZVI reactivity. In this study, the influence of hardness, alkalinity, and organic matter on NZVI reactivity was evaluated by the response surface method (RSM). Hardness (Ca2+) had a positive effect on NZVI reactivity by accelerating iron corrosion. In contrast, alkalinity (bicarbonate; HCO-3) and organic matter (humic acid; HA) had negative effects on NZVI reactivity due to morphological change to carbonate green rust, and to competitive adsorption of HA, respectively. The validity of the statistical prediction model derived from RSM was confirmed by an additional confirmation experiment, and the experimental result was within the 95% confidential interval. Therefore, it can be indicated that the RSM model produced results that were statistically significant.

Deactivation of nanoscale zero-valent iron by humic acid and by retention in water

The effects of the deactivation of nanoscale zero-valent iron (NZVI), induced by humic acid (HA) and by the retention of NZVI in water, on nitrate reduction were investigated using a kinetic study. Both the nitrate removal and generation of ammonia were significantly inhibited as the HA adsorption amount and retention time were increased. However, HA removal was greatly enhanced when the NZVI was used after 1 d or 25 d of retention in water. The results are caused by the formation of iron oxides/hydroxides, which increased the specific surface area and the degree of NZVI aggregation which was observed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). However, the nitrate reduction was greater at the beginning of reaction in the presence of HA when fresh NZVI was used, because of the enhanced electron transfer by the HA in bulk phase and on NZVI surface as train sequences. The pseudo second order adsorption kinetic equation incorporating deactivation and a Langmuir-Hinshelwood (LH) type kinetic equation provided accurate descriptions of the nitrate removal and ammonia generation, respectively. The deactivation constant and the reaction rate constant of the LH type kinetic equation were strongly correlated with the HA amount accumulated on NZVI. These results suggest that the HA accumulation on the NZVI surface reactive sites plays the dominant role in the inhibition and the inhibition can be described successfully using the deactivation model. The HA accumulation on NZVI was verified using TEM.

Effect of common ions on nitrate removal by zero-valent iron from alkaline soil

Zero-valent iron (Fe(0))-based permeable reactive barrier (PRB) technology has been proved to be effective for soil and groundwater nitrate remediation under acidic or near neutral conditions. But few studies have been reported about it and the effects of coexistent ions under alkaline conditions. In this study, nitrate reduction by Fe(0) was evaluated via batch tests in the presence of alkaline soil and common cation (Fe(2+), Fe(3+) and Cu(2+)) and anion (citrate, oxalate, acetate, SO(4)(2-), PO(4)(3-), Cl(-) and HCO(3)(-)). The results showed that cation significantly enhanced nitrate reduction with an order of Fe(3+)>Fe(2+)>Cu(2+) due to providing Fe(2+) directly or indirectly. Most anions enhanced nitrate reduction, but PO(4)(3-) behaved inhibition. The promotion decreased in the order of citrate>acetate>SO(4)(2-)>Cl(-)≈HCO(3)(-)≈oxalate≫PO(4)(3-). Ammonium was the major final product from nitrate reduction by Fe(0), while a little nitrite accumulated in the beginning of reaction. The nitrogen recovery in liquid and gas phase was only 56-78% after reaction due to ammonium adsorption onto soil. The solution pH and electric conductivity (EC) varied depending on the specific ion added. The results implied that PRB based Fe(0) is a potential approach for in situ remediation of soil and groundwater nitrate contamination in the alkaline conditions.