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Navarro-Lobato I, Masmudi-Martín M, López-Aranda MF, López-Téllez JF, Delgado G, Granados-Durán P, Gaona-Romero C, Carretero-Rey M, Posadas S, Quiros-Ortega ME, Khan ZU. Promotion of structural plasticity in area V2 of visual cortex prevents against object recognition memory deficits in aging and Alzheimer's disease rodents. Neural Regen Res 2024; 19:1835-1841. [PMID: 38103251 PMCID: PMC10960297 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.389301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Revised: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
JOURNAL/nrgr/04.03/01300535-202408000-00038/figure1/v/2023-12-16T180322Z/r/image-tiff Memory deficit, which is often associated with aging and many psychiatric, neurological, and neurodegenerative diseases, has been a challenging issue for treatment. Up till now, all potential drug candidates have failed to produce satisfactory effects. Therefore, in the search for a solution, we found that a treatment with the gene corresponding to the RGS14414 protein in visual area V2, a brain area connected with brain circuits of the ventral stream and the medial temporal lobe, which is crucial for object recognition memory (ORM), can induce enhancement of ORM. In this study, we demonstrated that the same treatment with RGS14414 in visual area V2, which is relatively unaffected in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, produced long-lasting enhancement of ORM in young animals and prevent ORM deficits in rodent models of aging and Alzheimer's disease. Furthermore, we found that the prevention of memory deficits was mediated through the upregulation of neuronal arborization and spine density, as well as an increase in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). A knockdown of BDNF gene in RGS14414-treated aging rats and Alzheimer's disease model mice caused complete loss in the upregulation of neuronal structural plasticity and in the prevention of ORM deficits. These findings suggest that BDNF-mediated neuronal structural plasticity in area V2 is crucial in the prevention of memory deficits in RGS14414-treated rodent models of aging and Alzheimer's disease. Therefore, our findings of RGS14414 gene-mediated activation of neuronal circuits in visual area V2 have therapeutic relevance in the treatment of memory deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Navarro-Lobato
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Centro de Investigaciones Médico Sanitarias (CIMES), University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
| | - Mariam Masmudi-Martín
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Centro de Investigaciones Médico Sanitarias (CIMES), University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
| | - Manuel F. López-Aranda
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Centro de Investigaciones Médico Sanitarias (CIMES), University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
| | - Juan F. López-Téllez
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Centro de Investigaciones Médico Sanitarias (CIMES), University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
| | - Gloria Delgado
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Centro de Investigaciones Médico Sanitarias (CIMES), University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
| | - Pablo Granados-Durán
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Centro de Investigaciones Médico Sanitarias (CIMES), University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
| | - Celia Gaona-Romero
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Centro de Investigaciones Médico Sanitarias (CIMES), University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
| | - Marta Carretero-Rey
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Centro de Investigaciones Médico Sanitarias (CIMES), University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
| | - Sinforiano Posadas
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Centro de Investigaciones Médico Sanitarias (CIMES), University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
| | - María E. Quiros-Ortega
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Centro de Investigaciones Médico Sanitarias (CIMES), University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
| | - Zafar U. Khan
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Centro de Investigaciones Médico Sanitarias (CIMES), University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
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Atsumi Y, Iwata R, Kimura H, Vanderhaeghen P, Yamamoto N, Sugo N. Repetitive CREB-DNA interactions at gene loci predetermined by CBP induce activity-dependent gene expression in human cortical neurons. Cell Rep 2024; 43:113576. [PMID: 38128530 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.113576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuronal activity-dependent transcription plays a key role in plasticity and pathology in the brain. An intriguing question is how neuronal activity controls gene expression via interactions of transcription factors with DNA and chromatin modifiers in the nucleus. By utilizing single-molecule imaging in human embryonic stem cell (ESC)-derived cortical neurons, we demonstrate that neuronal activity increases repetitive emergence of cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) at histone acetylation sites in the nucleus, where RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) accumulation and FOS expression occur rapidly. Neuronal activity also enhances co-localization of CREB and CREB-binding protein (CBP). Increased binding of a constitutively active CREB to CBP efficiently induces CREB repetitive emergence. On the other hand, the formation of histone acetylation sites is dependent on CBP histone modification via acetyltransferase (HAT) activity but is not affected by neuronal activity. Taken together, our results suggest that neuronal activity promotes repetitive CREB-CRE and CREB-CBP interactions at predetermined histone acetylation sites, leading to rapid gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri Atsumi
- Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Ryohei Iwata
- VIB-KU Leuven, Center for Brain & Disease Research and KU Leuven, Department of Neurosciences & Leuven Brain Institute, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Hiroshi Kimura
- Cell Biology Center, Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Kanagawa 226-8503, Japan
| | - Pierre Vanderhaeghen
- VIB-KU Leuven, Center for Brain & Disease Research and KU Leuven, Department of Neurosciences & Leuven Brain Institute, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nobuhiko Yamamoto
- Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; Institute of Neurological and Psychiatric Disorders, Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518132, China.
| | - Noriyuki Sugo
- Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
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Ahtiainen A, Annala I, Rosenholm M, Kohtala S, Hyttinen J, Tanskanen JMA, Rantamäki T. Ketamine reduces electrophysiological network activity in cortical neuron cultures already at sub-micromolar concentrations - Impact on TrkB-ERK1/2 signaling. Neuropharmacology 2023; 229:109481. [PMID: 36868403 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2023.109481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2023] [Revised: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 02/26/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
Abstract
The dissociative anesthetic ketamine regulates cortical activity in a dose-dependent manner. Subanesthetic-dose ketamine has paradoxical excitatory effects which is proposed to facilitate brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) (a ligand of tropomyosin receptor kinase B, TrkB) signaling, and activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2). Previous data suggests that ketamine, at sub-micromolar concentrations, induces glutamatergic activity, BDNF release, and activation of ERK1/2 also on primary cortical neurons. We combined western blot analysis with multiwell-microelectrode array (mw-MEA) measurements to examine ketamine's concentration-dependent effects on network-level electrophysiological responses and TrkB-ERK1/2 phosphorylation in rat cortical cultures at 14 days in vitro. Ketamine did not cause an increase in neuronal network activity at sub-micromolar concentrations, but instead a decrease in spiking that was evident already at 500 nM concentration. TrkB phosphorylation was unaffected by the low concentrations, although BDNF elicited prominent phosphorylation response. High concentration of ketamine (10 μM) strongly reduced spiking, bursting and burst duration, which was accompanied with decreased phosphorylation of ERK1/2 but not TrkB. Notably, robust increases in spiking and bursting activity could be produced with carbachol, while it did not affect phosphorylation of TrkB or ERK1/2. Diazepam abolished neuronal activity, which was accompanied by reduced ERK1/2 phosphorylation without change on TrkB. In conclusion, sub-micromolar ketamine concentrations did not cause an increase in neuronal network activity or TrkB-ERK1/2 phosphorylation in cortical neuron cultures that readily respond to exogenously applied BDNF. Instead, pharmacological inhibition of network activity can be readily observed with high concentration of ketamine and it is associated with reduced ERK1/2 phosphorylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Ahtiainen
- Computational Biophysics and Imaging Group, BioMediTech, Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, Arvo Ylpön katu 34, 33520, Tampere, Finland.
| | - I Annala
- Laboratory of Neurotherapeutics, Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 5E, Biocenter 2, 00790, Helsinki, Finland; SleepWell Research Program, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 9, Helsinki, 00014, Finland.
| | - M Rosenholm
- Laboratory of Neurotherapeutics, Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 5E, Biocenter 2, 00790, Helsinki, Finland; Center for Translational Neuromedicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3B, 2200, Copenhagen N, Denmark
| | - S Kohtala
- Laboratory of Neurotherapeutics, Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 5E, Biocenter 2, 00790, Helsinki, Finland; SleepWell Research Program, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 9, Helsinki, 00014, Finland; Department of Psychiatry, Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, 407 E 61st St, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - J Hyttinen
- Computational Biophysics and Imaging Group, BioMediTech, Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, Arvo Ylpön katu 34, 33520, Tampere, Finland
| | - J M A Tanskanen
- Computational Biophysics and Imaging Group, BioMediTech, Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, Arvo Ylpön katu 34, 33520, Tampere, Finland
| | - T Rantamäki
- Laboratory of Neurotherapeutics, Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 5E, Biocenter 2, 00790, Helsinki, Finland; SleepWell Research Program, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 9, Helsinki, 00014, Finland
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Kaneko M, Stryker MP. Production of brain-derived neurotrophic factor gates plasticity in developing visual cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2214833120. [PMID: 36634145 PMCID: PMC9934058 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2214833120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
We have previously shown that recovery of visual responses to a deprived eye during the critical period in mouse primary visual cortex requires phosphorylation of the TrkB receptor for BDNF [M. Kaneko, J. L. Hanover, P. M. England, M. P. Stryker, Nat. Neurosci. 11, 497-504 (2008)]. We have now studied the temporal relationship between the production of mature BDNF and the recovery of visual responses under several different conditions. Visual cortical responses to an eye whose vision has been occluded for several days during the critical period and is then re-opened recover rapidly during binocular vision or much more slowly following reverse occlusion, when the previously intact fellow eye is occluded in a model of "patch therapy" for amblyopia. The time to recovery of visual responses differed by more than 18 h between these two procedures, but in each, the production of mature BDNF preceded the physiological recovery. These findings suggest that a spurt of BDNF production is permissive for the growth of connections serving the deprived eye to restore visual responses. Attenuation of recovery of deprived-eye responses by interference with TrkB receptor activation or reduction of BDNF production by interference with homeostatic synaptic scaling had effects consistent with this suggestion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megumi Kaneko
- Department of Physiology and Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco94143
| | - Michael P. Stryker
- Department of Physiology and Kavli Institute for Fundamental Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco94143
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Mesquida-Veny F, Martínez-Torres S, Del Río JA, Hervera A. Genetic control of neuronal activity enhances axonal growth only on permissive substrates. Mol Med 2022; 28:97. [PMID: 35978278 PMCID: PMC9387030 DOI: 10.1186/s10020-022-00524-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Neural tissue has limited regenerative ability. To cope with that, in recent years a diverse set of novel tools has been used to tailor neurostimulation therapies and promote functional regeneration after axonal injuries. Method In this report, we explore cell-specific methods to modulate neuronal activity, including opto- and chemogenetics to assess the effect of specific neuronal stimulation in the promotion of axonal regeneration after injury. Results Opto- and chemogenetic stimulations of neuronal activity elicited increased in vitro neurite outgrowth in both sensory and cortical neurons, as well as in vivo regeneration in the sciatic nerve, but not after spinal cord injury. Mechanistically, inhibitory substrates such as chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans block the activity induced increase in axonal growth. Conclusions We found that genetic modulations of neuronal activity on both dorsal root ganglia and corticospinal motor neurons increase their axonal growth capacity but only on permissive environments. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s10020-022-00524-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francina Mesquida-Veny
- Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Network Centre of Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Institute of Health Carlos III, Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, Madrid, Spain.,Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sara Martínez-Torres
- Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Network Centre of Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Institute of Health Carlos III, Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, Madrid, Spain.,Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - José Antonio Del Río
- Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Network Centre of Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Institute of Health Carlos III, Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, Madrid, Spain.,Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Arnau Hervera
- Molecular and Cellular Neurobiotechnology, Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Barcelona, Spain. .,Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain. .,Network Centre of Biomedical Research of Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Institute of Health Carlos III, Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, Madrid, Spain. .,Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
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Warm D, Bassetti D, Schroer J, Luhmann HJ, Sinning A. Spontaneous Activity Predicts Survival of Developing Cortical Neurons. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:937761. [PMID: 36035995 PMCID: PMC9399774 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.937761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Spontaneous activity plays a crucial role in brain development by coordinating the integration of immature neurons into emerging cortical networks. High levels and complex patterns of spontaneous activity are generally associated with low rates of apoptosis in the cortex. However, whether spontaneous activity patterns directly encode for survival of individual cortical neurons during development remains an open question. Here, we longitudinally investigated spontaneous activity and apoptosis in developing cortical cultures, combining extracellular electrophysiology with calcium imaging. These experiments demonstrated that the early occurrence of calcium transients was strongly linked to neuronal survival. Silent neurons exhibited a higher probability of cell death, whereas high frequency spiking and burst behavior were almost exclusively detected in surviving neurons. In local neuronal clusters, activity of neighboring neurons exerted a pro-survival effect, whereas on the functional level, networks with a high modular topology were associated with lower cell death rates. Using machine learning algorithms, cell fate of individual neurons was predictable through the integration of spontaneous activity features. Our results indicate that high frequency spiking activity constrains apoptosis in single neurons through sustained calcium rises and thereby consolidates networks in which a high modular topology is reached during early development.
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Pumo GM, Kitazawa T, Rijli FM. Epigenetic and Transcriptional Regulation of Spontaneous and Sensory Activity Dependent Programs During Neuronal Circuit Development. Front Neural Circuits 2022; 16:911023. [PMID: 35664458 PMCID: PMC9158562 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2022.911023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Spontaneous activity generated before the onset of sensory transduction has a key role in wiring developing sensory circuits. From axonal targeting, to synapse formation and elimination, to the balanced integration of neurons into developing circuits, this type of activity is implicated in a variety of cellular processes. However, little is known about its molecular mechanisms of action, especially at the level of genome regulation. Conversely, sensory experience-dependent activity implements well-characterized transcriptional and epigenetic chromatin programs that underlie heterogeneous but specific genomic responses that shape both postnatal circuit development and neuroplasticity in the adult. In this review, we focus on our knowledge of the developmental processes regulated by spontaneous activity and the underlying transcriptional mechanisms. We also review novel findings on how chromatin regulates the specificity and developmental induction of the experience-dependent program, and speculate their relevance for our understanding of how spontaneous activity may act at the genomic level to instruct circuit assembly and prepare developing neurons for sensory-dependent connectivity refinement and processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele M. Pumo
- Laboratory of Neurodevelopmental Epigenetics, Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
- Department Biozentrum, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Taro Kitazawa
- Laboratory of Neurodevelopmental Epigenetics, Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Filippo M. Rijli
- Laboratory of Neurodevelopmental Epigenetics, Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
- Department Biozentrum, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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Thapliyal S, Arendt KL, Lau AG, Chen L. Retinoic acid-gated BDNF synthesis in neuronal dendrites drives presynaptic homeostatic plasticity. eLife 2022; 11:79863. [PMID: 36515276 PMCID: PMC9797192 DOI: 10.7554/elife.79863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Homeostatic synaptic plasticity is a non-Hebbian synaptic mechanism that adjusts synaptic strength to maintain network stability while achieving optimal information processing. Among the molecular mediators shown to regulate this form of plasticity, synaptic signaling through retinoic acid (RA) and its receptor, RARα, has been shown to be critically involved in the homeostatic adjustment of synaptic transmission in both hippocampus and sensory cortices. In this study, we explore the molecular mechanism through which postsynaptic RA and RARα regulates presynaptic neurotransmitter release during prolonged synaptic inactivity at mouse glutamatertic synapses. We show that RARα binds to a subset of dendritically sorted brain-derived neurotrophic factor (Bdnf) mRNA splice isoforms and represses their translation. The RA-mediated translational de-repression of postsynaptic BDNF results in the retrograde activation of presynaptic tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB) receptors, facilitating presynaptic homeostatic compensation through enhanced presynaptic release. Together, our study illustrates an RA-mediated retrograde synaptic signaling pathway through which postsynaptic protein synthesis during synaptic inactivity drives compensatory changes at the presynaptic site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shruti Thapliyal
- Departments of Neurosurgery, Neuropsychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of MedicineStanfordUnited States
| | - Kristin L Arendt
- Departments of Neurosurgery, Neuropsychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of MedicineStanfordUnited States
| | - Anthony G Lau
- Departments of Neurosurgery, Neuropsychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of MedicineStanfordUnited States
| | - Lu Chen
- Departments of Neurosurgery, Neuropsychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of MedicineStanfordUnited States
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