TPH2 Deficiency Influences Neuroplastic Mechanisms and Alters the Response to an Acute Stress in a Sex Specific Manner

Behavioural and physiological responses to stressors in sheep with temperament classified by genotype or phenotype

The single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs107856856, located in the tryptophan hydroxylase-2 gene, is associated with the behavioural phenotype for sheep temperament measured at weaning. Here, we tested the association between that SNP and physiological and behavioural responses to stressors in adult sheep. Two groups of adult sheep, one with genotype A/A (calm genotype) and the other with G/G (nervous genotype) in rs107856856, were selected from 160 sheep and were exposed, twice, to an open-field arena and an isolation box test (IBT). During each repeat, the behaviour and physiological responses (cortisol, prolactin, dehydroepiandrosterone [DHEA], brain derived neurotrophic factor [BDNF], characteristics of the response of body temperature, and oxidative stress) were measured. The behavioural and physiological responses of the sheep were compared between genotypes and also between groups classified on their phenotype as assessed by their initial isolation box score ("low responders" and "high responders"). The SNP rs107856856 had some effects on the behavioural phenotype (IBT score) but no effects on the physiological response to stress (cortisol, prolactin, DHEA, BDNF, oxidative stress or changes in body temperature) in the adult sheep, probably because the sheep were exposed, and therefore had adapted, to human contact during their life.

Relative synonymous codon usage and codon pair analysis of depression associated genes

Depression negatively impacts mood, behavior, and mental and physical health. It is the third leading cause of suicides worldwide and leads to decreased quality of life. We examined 18 genes available at the genetic testing registry (GTR) from the National Center for Biotechnological Information to investigate molecular patterns present in depression-associated genes. Different genotypes and differential expression of the genes are responsible for ensuing depression. The present study, investigated codon pattern analysis, which might play imperative roles in modulating gene expression of depression-associated genes. Of the 18 genes, seven and two genes tended to up- and down-regulate, respectively, and, for the remaining genes, different genotypes, an outcome of SNPs were responsible alone or in combination with differential expression for different conditions associated with depression. Codon context analysis revealed the abundance of identical GTG-GTG and CTG-CTG pairs, and the rarity of methionine-initiated codon pairs. Information based on codon usage, preferred codons, rare, and codon context might be used in constructing a deliverable synthetic construct to correct the gene expression level of the human body, which is altered in the depressive state. Other molecular signatures also revealed the role of evolutionary forces in shaping codon usage.

Perinatal serotonergic manipulation shapes anhedonic and cognitive behaviors in a sex- and age-dependent manner: Identification of related biological functions at central and peripheral level

Poor knowledge about psychiatric disorders often results in similar diagnoses for patients with different symptoms, thus limiting the effectiveness of the available medications. As suggested by several lines of evidence, to improve these shortcomings, it is essential to identify biomarkers associated with specific symptoms and to stratify patients into more homogeneous populations taking a further step toward personalized medicine. Here, we aimed to associate specific behavioral phenotypes with specific molecular alterations by employing an animal model based on the pharmacological manipulation of the serotonergic system, which mimics a condition of vulnerability to develop psychiatric disorders. In particular, we treated female and male rats with fluoxetine (FLX 15 mg/kg dissolved in drinking water) during prenatal or early postnatal life, and we evaluated different pathological-like phenotypes (cognitive deficit, anhedonia, and anxiety) by exposing the rats to a battery of behavioral tests during adolescence and adulthood. In addition, we carried out molecular analyses on specific brain areas and in the blood. Our results showed that perinatal FLX administration determined age- and sex-dependent effects, with males being more sensitive to prenatal manipulation and manifesting anhedonic-like behavior and females to early postnatal exposure, exhibiting cognitive deficits and a less anxious phenotype. Furthermore, we identified, peripherally and centrally, biological functions altered by perinatal serotonin modulation regardless of the timing of exposure and sex, and other pathways specific for the pathological-like phenotypes. The results presented here provide new insights into potential biomarkers associated with specific behavioral phenotypes that may be useful for broadening knowledge about psychiatric conditions.

Constitutive depletion of brain serotonin differentially affects rats' social and cognitive abilities

Central serotonin appears a promising transdiagnostic marker of psychiatric disorders and a modulator of some of their key behavioral symptoms. In adult male Tph2 ^-/- rats, constitutively lacking central serotonin, we tested individual's cognitive, social and non-social abilities and characterized group's social organization under classical and ethological testing conditions. Using unsupervised machine learning, we identified the functions most dependent on serotonin. Although serotonin depletion did not affect cognitive performances in classical testing, in the home-cage it induced compulsive aggression and sexual behavior, hyperactive and hypervigilant stereotyped behavior, reduced self-care and exacerbated corticosterone levels. This profile recalled symptoms of impulse control and anxiety disorders. Serotonin appeared essential for behavioral adaptation to dynamic social environments. Our animal model challenges the essential role of serotonin in decision-making, flexibility, impulsivity, and risk-taking. These findings highlight the importance of studying everyday life functions within the dynamic social living environment to model complexity in animal models.

Tryptophan Hydroxylase 2 Knockout Male Rats Exhibit a Strengthened Oxytocin System, Are Aggressive, and Are Less Anxious

The central serotoninergic system is critical for stress responsivity and social behavior, and its dysregulations have been centrally implicated in virtually all neuropsychiatric disorders. Genetic serotonin depletion animal models could provide a tool to elucidate the causes and mechanisms of diseases and to develop new treatment approaches. Previously, mice lacking tryptophan hydroxylase 2 (Tph2) have been developed, showing altered behaviors and neurotransmission. However, the effect of congenital serotonin deficiency on emotional and social behavior in rats is still largely unknown, as are the underlying mechanisms. In this study, we used a Tph2 knockout (Tph2^-/-) male rat model to study how the lack of serotonin in the rat brain affects anxiety-like and social behaviors. Since oxytocin is centrally implicated in these behaviors, we furthermore explored whether the effects of Tph2 knockout on behavior would relate to changes in the oxytocin system. We show that Tph2^-/- rats display reduced anxiety-like behavior and a high level of aggression in social interactions. In addition, oxytocin receptor expression was increased in the infralimbic and prelimbic cortices, paraventricular nucleus, dorsal raphe nucleus, and some subregions of the hippocampus, which was paralleled by increased levels of oxytocin in the medial frontal cortex and paraventricular nucleus but not the dorsal raphe nucleus, central amygdala, and hippocampus. In conclusion, our study demonstrated reduced anxiety but exaggerated aggression in Tph2^-/- male rats and reveals for the first time a potential involvement of altered oxytocin system function. Meanwhile, the research of oxytocin could be distinguished in almost any psychiatric disorder including anxiety and mental disorders. This research potentially proposes a new target for the treatment of such disorders, from a genetic serotonin deficiency aspect.

Peripheral Serotonin Deficiency Affects Anxiety-like Behavior and the Molecular Response to an Acute Challenge in Rats

Serotonin is synthetized through the action of tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH) enzymes. While the TPH2 isoform is responsible for the production of serotonin in the brain, TPH1 is expressed in peripheral organs. Interestingly, despite its peripheral localization, alterations of the gene coding for TPH1 have been related to stress sensitivity and an increased susceptibility for psychiatric pathologies. On these bases, we took advantage of newly generated TPH1^-/- rats, and we evaluated the impact of the lack of peripheral serotonin on the behavior and expression of brain plasticity-related genes under basal conditions and in response to stress. At a behavioral level, TPH1^-/- rats displayed reduced anxiety-like behavior. Moreover, we found that neuronal activation, quantified by the expression of Bdnf and the immediate early gene Arc and transcription of glucocorticoid responsive genes after 1 h of acute restraint stress, was blunted in TPH1^-/- rats in comparison to TPH1^+/+ animals. Overall, we provided evidence for the influence of peripheral serotonin levels in modulating brain functions under basal and dynamic situations.

Enduring Effects of Conditional Brain Serotonin Knockdown, Followed by Recovery, on Adult Rat Neurogenesis and Behavior

Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) is a crucial signal in the neurogenic niche of the hippocampus, where it is involved in antidepressant action. Here, we utilized a new transgenic rat model (TetO-shTPH2), where brain 5-HT levels can be acutely altered based on doxycycline (Dox)-inducible shRNA-expression. On/off stimulations of 5-HT concentrations might uniquely mirror the clinical course of major depression (e.g., relapse after discontinuation of antidepressants) in humans. Specifically, we measured 5-HT levels, and 5-HT metabolite 5-HIAA, in various brain areas following acute tryptophan hydroxylase 2 (Tph2) knockdown, and replenishment, and examined behavior and proliferation and survival of newly generated cells in the dentate gyrus. We found that decreased 5-HT levels in the prefrontal cortex and raphe nuclei, but not in the hippocampus of TetO-shTPH2 rats, lead to an enduring anxious phenotype. Surprisingly, the reduction in 5-HT synthesis is associated with increased numbers of BrdU-labeled cells in the dentate gyrus. At 3 weeks of Tph2 replenishment, 5-HT levels return to baseline and survival of newly generated cells is unaffected. We speculate that the acutely induced decrease in 5-HT concentrations and increased neurogenesis might represent a compensatory mechanism.

DNA methylation signature as a biomarker of major neuropsychiatric disorders

DNA methylation is a broadly-investigated epigenetic modification that has been considered as a heritable and reversible change. Previous findings have indicated that DNA methylation regulates gene expression in the central nervous system (CNS). Also, disturbance of DNA methylation patterns has been associated with destructive consequences that lead to human brain diseases such as neuropsychiatric disorders (NPDs). In this review, we comprehensively discuss the mechanism and function of DNA methylation and its most recent associations with the pathology of NPDs-including major depressive disorder (MDD), schizophrenia (SZ), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), bipolar disorder (BD), and attention/deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). We also discuss how heterogeneous findings demand further investigations. Finally, based on the recent studies we conclude that DNA methylation status may have implications in clinical diagnostics and therapeutics as a potential epigenetic biomarker of NPDs.

Sucrose Consumption Alters Serotonin/Glutamate Co-localisation Within the Prefrontal Cortex and Hippocampus of Mice

The overconsumption of sugar-sweetened food and beverages underpins the current rise in obesity rates. Sugar overconsumption induces maladaptive neuroplasticity to decrease dietary control. Although serotonin and glutamate co-localisation has been implicated in reward processing, it is still unknown how chronic sucrose consumption changes this transmission in regions associated with executive control over feeding—such as the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus. To address this, a total of 16 C57Bl6 mice received either 5% w/v sucrose or water as a control for 12 weeks using the Drinking-In-The-Dark paradigm (n = 8 mice per group). We then examined the effects of chronic sucrose consumption on the immunological distribution of serotonin (5-HT), vesicular glutamate transporter 3 (VGLUT3) and 5-HT⁺/VGLUT3⁺ co-localised axonal varicosities. Sucrose consumption over 12 weeks decreased the number of 5-HT^–/VGLUT3⁺ and 5-HT⁺/VGLUT3⁺ varicosities within the PFC and DG. The number of 5-HT⁺/VGLUT3^– varicosities remained unchanged within the PFC but decreased in the DG following sucrose consumption. Given that serotonin mediates DG neurogenesis through microglial migration, the number of microglia within the DG was also assessed in both experimental groups. Sucrose consumption decreased the number of DG microglia. Although the DG and PFC are associated with executive control over rewarding activities and emotional memory formation, we did not detect a subsequent change in DG neurogenesis or anxiety-like behaviour or depressive-like behaviour. Overall, these findings suggest that the chronic consumption of sugar alters serotonergic neuroplasticity within neural circuits responsible for feeding control. Although these alterations alone were not sufficient to induce changes in neurogenesis or behaviour, it is proposed that the sucrose consumption may predispose individuals to these cognitive deficits which ultimately promote further sugar intake.

REVERSE phenotyping-Can the phenotype following constitutive Tph2 gene inactivation in mice be transferred to children and adolescents with and without adhd?

INTRODUCTION

Experimental models of neuropsychiatric disorders, for example, ADHD, are used to mimic specific phenotypic traits of a complex human disorder. However, it remains unresolved to what extent the animal phenotype reflects the specific human trait. The null mutant mouse of the serotonin-synthesizing tryptophan hydroxylase-2 (Tph2^-/- ) gene has been proposed as experimental model for ADHD with high face validity for impulsive, aggressive, and anxious behaviors. To validate this ADHD-like model, we examined the Tph2^-/- phenotype in humans when considering allelic variation of TPH2 function ("reverse phenotyping").

METHODS

58 participants (6 females, 8-18 years) were examined, of whom 32 were diagnosed with ADHD. All participants were phenotyped for impulsivity, aggression, and anxiety using questionnaires, behavioral tests, and MRI scanning while performing the 4-choice serial reaction time task. Additionally, participants were genotyped for the TPH2 G-703T (rs4570625) polymorphism. To analyze the relation between TPH2 G-703T variants and the impulsive/aggressive/anxious phenotype, mediation analyses were performed using behavioral and MRI data as potential mediators.

RESULTS

We found that the relation between TPH2 G-703T and aggression as part of the reverse Tph2^- /^- phenotype was mediated by structure and function of the right middle and inferior frontal gyrus.

CONCLUSION

At the example of trait aggression, our results support the assumption that the Tph2 null mutant mouse reflects the TPH2 G-703T-dependent phenotype in humans. Additionally, we conclude that "reverse phenotyping" is a promising method to validate experimental models and human findings for refined analysis of disease mechanisms.

Mechanisms Underlying the Cognitive and Behavioural Effects of Maternal Obesity

The widespread consumption of 'western'-style diets along with sedentary lifestyles has led to a global epidemic of obesity. Epidemiological, clinical and preclinical evidence suggests that maternal obesity, overnutrition and unhealthy dietary patterns programs have lasting adverse effects on the physical and mental health of offspring. We review currently available preclinical and clinical evidence and summarise possible underlying neurobiological mechanisms by which maternal overnutrition may perturb offspring cognitive function, affective state and psychosocial behaviour, with a focus on (1) neuroinflammation; (2) disrupted neuronal circuities and connectivity; and (3) dysregulated brain hormones. We briefly summarise research implicating the gut microbiota in maternal obesity-induced changes to offspring behaviour. In animal models, maternal obesogenic diet consumption disrupts CNS homeostasis in offspring, which is critical for healthy neurodevelopment, by altering hypothalamic and hippocampal development and recruitment of glial cells, which subsequently dysregulates dopaminergic and serotonergic systems. The adverse effects of maternal obesogenic diets are also conferred through changes to hormones including leptin, insulin and oxytocin which interact with these brain regions and neuronal circuits. Furthermore, accumulating evidence suggests that the gut microbiome may directly and indirectly contribute to these maternal diet effects in both human and animal studies. As the specific pathways shaping abnormal behaviour in offspring in the context of maternal obesogenic diet exposure remain unknown, further investigations are needed to address this knowledge gap. Use of animal models permits investigation of changes in neuroinflammation, neurotransmitter activity and hormones across global brain network and sex differences, which could be directly and indirectly modulated by the gut microbiome.

Chronic Treatment with a Phytosomal Preparation Containing Centella asiatica L. and Curcuma longa L. Affects Local Protein Synthesis by Modulating the BDNF-mTOR-S6 Pathway

Brain derived neurotrophic factor (Bdnf) is the most diffuse neurotrophin in the central nervous system and it is crucial for the proper brain development and maintenance. Indeed, through the binding to its high affinity receptor TRKB and the activation of different intracellular cascades, it boosts cell survival, neurite growth and spine maturations mechanisms. Here, we evaluated if the chronic oral treatment for 10 days with a phytosomal preparation containing Centella asiatica L. and Curcuma longa L. could improve Bdnf levels in the prefrontal cortex of adult rats. Interestingly we found an increased expression of Bdnf with main effect of the treatment on the mTOR-S6 downstream signaling pathway. Accordingly, we found an increase in the expression of eukaryotic elongation factor (eEF2) with a shift towards the phosphorylated form thus increasing the transcription of Oligophrenin-1, a protein carrying the upstream Open Reading Frame (uORF) which reduction is paralleled by memory dysfunctions. These results show the ability of the phytosome to enhance mTOR-S6 regulated transcription and suggest the possibility to use this preparation in subjects with impairments in neuroplastic mechanisms, memory and cognitive abilities.

Alterations in BDNF Protein Concentrations in the Hippocampus do not Explain the Pro-Neurogenic Effect of Citalopram on Adult Neurogenesis

INTRODUCTION

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) has been implicated in the pro-neurogenic effect of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. In this study, we used Tph2 ^-/- mice lacking brain serotonin to dissect the interplay between BDNF and the serotonin system in mediating the effects of antidepressant pharmacotherapy on adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus.

METHODS

Besides citalopram (CIT), we tested tianeptine (TIA), an antidepressant whose mechanism of action is not well understood. Specifically, we examined cell survival and endogenous concentrations of BDNF following daily injection of the drugs.

RESULTS

Twenty-one days of CIT, but not of TIA, led to a significant increase in the survival of newly generated cells in the dentate gyrus of wild-type mice, without a significant effect on BDNF protein levels by either treatment. In Tph2 ^-/- mice, adult neurogenesis was consistently increased. Furthermore, Tph2 ^-/- mice showed increased BDNF protein levels, which were not affected by TIA but were significantly reduced by CIT.

DISCUSSION

We conclude that the effects of CIT on adult neurogenesis are not explained by changes in BDNF protein concentrations in the hippocampus.

Chronic Restraint Stress Inhibits the Response to a Second Hit in Adult Male Rats: A Role for BDNF Signaling

Depression is a recurrent disorder, with about 50% of patients experiencing relapse. Exposure to stressful events may have an adverse impact on the long-term course of the disorder and may alter the response to a subsequent stressor. Indeed, not all the systems impaired by stress may normalize during symptoms remission, facilitating the relapse to the pathology. Hence, we investigated the long-lasting effects of chronic restraint stress (CRS) and its influence on the modifications induced by the exposure to a second hit on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signaling in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). We exposed adult male Sprague Dawley rats to 4 weeks of CRS, we left them undisturbed for the subsequent 3 weeks, and then we exposed animals to one hour of acute restraint stress (ARS). We found that CRS influenced the release of corticosterone induced by ARS and inhibited the ability of ARS to activate mature BDNF, its receptor Tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TRKB), and their associated intracellular cascades: the TRKB-PI3K-AKT), the MEK-MAPK/ERK, and the Phospholipase C γ (PLCγ) pathways, positively modulated by ARS in non-stressed animals. These results suggest that CRS induces protracted and detrimental consequences that interfere with the ability of PFC to cope with a challenging situation.

The Absence of Serotonin in the Brain Alters Acute Stress Responsiveness by Interfering With the Genomic Function of the Glucocorticoid Receptors

Alterations in serotonergic transmission have been related to a major predisposition to develop psychiatric pathologies, such as depression. We took advantage of tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH) 2 deficient rats, characterized by a complete absence of serotonin in the brain, to evaluate whether a vulnerable genotype may influence the reaction to an acute stressor. In this context, we investigated if the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) genomic pathway activation was altered by the lack of serotonin in the central nervous system. Moreover, we analyzed the transcription pattern of the clock genes that can be affected by acute stressors. Adult wild type (TPH2^+/+) and TPH2-deficient (TPH2^-/-) male rats were sacrificed after exposure to one single session of acute restraint stress. Protein and gene expression analyses were conducted in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). The acute stress enhanced the translocation of GRs in the nucleus of TPH2^+/+ animals. This effect was blunted in TPH2^-/- rats, suggesting an impairment of the GR genomic mechanism. This alteration was mirrored in the expression of GR-responsive genes: acute stress led to the up-regulation of GR-target gene expression in TPH2^+/+, but not in TPH2^-/- animals. Finally, clock genes were differently modulated in the two genotypes after the acute restraint stress. Overall our findings suggest that the absence of serotonin within the brain interferes with the ability of the HPA axis to correctly modulate the response to acute stress, by altering the nuclear mechanisms of the GR and modulation of clock genes expression.

Centella asiatica L. Phytosome Improves Cognitive Performance by Promoting Bdnf Expression in Rat Prefrontal Cortex

A wide range of people in the world use natural remedies as primary approaches against illnesses. Accordingly, understanding the mechanisms of action of phytochemicals has become of great interest. In this context, Centella asiatica L. is extensively used, not only as anti-inflammatory or antioxidant agent but also as brain tonic. On this basis, the purpose of this study was to evaluate whether the chronic administration of C. asiatica L. to adult male rats was able to improve the expression of Bdnf, one of the main mediators of brain plasticity. Moreover, we assessed whether the treatment could affect the cognitive performance in the novel object recognition (NOR) test. We confirmed the presence of the main compounds in the plasma. Furthermore, C. asiatica L. administration induced an increase of Bdnf in the prefrontal cortex, and the administration of the higher dose of the extract was able to improve cognitive performance. Finally, the increase in the preference index in the NOR test was paralleled by a further increase in Bdnf expression. Overall, we highlight the ability of C. asiatica L. to affect brain functions by increasing Bdnf expression and by enhancing the cognitive performance.

Acute Stress Induces Cognitive Improvement in the Novel Object Recognition Task by Transiently Modulating Bdnf in the Prefrontal Cortex of Male Rats

Stress response involves several mechanisms and mediators that allow individuals to adapt to a changing environment. The effects of stress may be adaptive or maladaptive, based on the timing and intensity of exposure as well as on the individual vulnerability. In particular, exposure to mild and brief stressors provides beneficial advantages in a short-term period, by activating protective functions to react with the external demands. On these bases, the purpose of our study was to establish the time-dependent effects of acute stress exposure on neuroplastic mechanisms in adult male rats. Moreover, we aim at establishing the consequences of the acute challenge on memory processes by testing rats in the Novel Object Recognition (NOR) test. We found that acute restraint stress up-regulated total Bdnf expression 1 h post stress specifically in rat prefrontal cortex, an effect that was sustained by the increase of Bdnf isoform IV as well as by the pool of Bdnf transcripts with long 3'UTR. Furthermore, in the same brain region, the acute stress modulated in a time-specific manner the expression of different activity-dependent genes, namely Arc, Gadd45β and Nr4a1. At behavioral level, the challenge was able to improve the performance in the NOR test specifically 1 h post stress, an effect that positively correlated with the expression of the neurotrophic factors. Taken together, our results suggest that a single session of acute stress enhances memory and learning functions with a specific temporal profile, by improving neuroplastic mechanisms within the prefrontal cortex.

Differential Hippocampal Expression of BDNF Isoforms and Their Receptors Under Diverse Configurations of the Serotonergic System in a Mice Model of Increased Neuronal Survival

Neurotrophic factors are relevant regulators of the neurogenic process at different levels. In particular, the brain-derived neurotrophic factor, BDNF, is highly expressed in the hippocampus (HC) of rodents and participates in the control of neuronal proliferation, and survival in the dentate gyrus (DG). Likewise, serotonin is also involved in the regulation of neurogenesis, though its role is apparently more complex. Indeed, both enhancement of serotonin neurotransmission as well as serotonin depletion, paradoxically increase neuronal survival in the HC of mice. In this study, we analyzed the protein expression of the BDNF isoforms, i.e., pro- and mature-BDNF, and their respective receptors p75 and TrkB, in the HC of mice chronically treated with para-chloro-phenyl-alanine (PCPA), an inhibitor of serotonin synthesis. The same analysis was conducted in hyposerotonergic mice with concomitant administration of the 5-HT_1A receptor agonist, 8-Hydroxy-2-(di-n- propylamino) tetralin (8-OH-DPAT). Increased expression of p75 receptor with decreased expression of pro-BDNF was observed after chronic PCPA. Seven-day treatment with 8-OH-DPAT reestablished the expression of pro-BDNF modified by PCPA, and induced an increase in the expression of p75 receptor. It has been demonstrated that PCPA-treated mice have higher number of immature neurons in the HC. Given that immature neurons participate in the pattern separation process, the object pattern separation test was conducted. A better performance of hyposerotonergic mice was not confirmed in this assay. Altogether, our results show that molecules in the BDNF signaling pathway are differentially expressed under diverse configurations of the serotonergic system, allowing for fine-tuning of the neurogenic process.