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Karaaslan BG, Turan I, Aydemir S, Meric ZA, Atay D, Akcay A, Sari AA, Hershfield M, Cipe F, Aksoy BA, Ersoy GZ, Bozkurt C, Demirkol YK, Ozturk G, Aydogmus C, Kiykim A, Cokugras H. Neurologic Status of Patients with Purine Nucleoside Phosphorylase Deficiency Before and After Hematopoetic Stem Cell Transplantation. J Clin Immunol 2023; 43:2062-2075. [PMID: 37726596 DOI: 10.1007/s10875-023-01585-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP) deficiency is a rare autosomal recessive combined immunodeficiency. The phenotype is profound T cell deficiency with variable B and NK cell functions and results in recurrent and persistent infections that typically begin in the first year of life. Neurologic findings occur in approximately two-thirds of patients. The mechanism of neurologic abnormalities is unclear. Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is the only curative treatment for PNP deficiency. METHODS We report here six patients from five unrelated families with PNP deficiency treated in two centers in Turkey. We evaluated the neurological status of patients and compared to post-transplantation period if available. Then, we performed PubMed, Google Scholar, and Researchgate searches using the terms "PNP" and "hematopoietic stem cell transplantation" to find all reported cases of PNP transplantation and compared to our cohort. RESULTS Six patients were treated in two centers in Turkey. One patient died from post-transplant complications. The other four patients underwent successful HSCT with good immune reconstitution after transplantation (follow-up 21-48 months) and good neurological outcomes. The other patient with a new mutation is still waiting for a matching HLA donor. DISCUSSION In PNP deficiency, clinical manifestations are variable, and this disease should be considered in the presence of many different clinical findings. Despite the comorbidities that occurred before transplantation, HSCT currently appears to be the only treatment option for this disease. HSCT not only cures immunologic disorders, but probably also improves or at least stabilizes the neurologic status of patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Betul Gemici Karaaslan
- Department of Pediatric Immunology and Allergy, School of Medicine, Istanbul University-Cerrahpaşa, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Isilay Turan
- Department of Pediatric Immunology and Allergy, University of Health Sciences, Basaksehir Cam and Sakura City Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Sezin Aydemir
- Department of Pediatric Immunology and Allergy, School of Medicine, Istanbul University-Cerrahpaşa, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Zeynep Akyuncu Meric
- Department of Pediatric Immunology and Allergy, School of Medicine, Istanbul University-Cerrahpaşa, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Didem Atay
- Department of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Bone Marrow Transplantation Unit, School of Medicine, Altunizade Hospital, Acibadem University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Arzu Akcay
- Department of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Bone Marrow Transplantation Unit, School of Medicine, Altunizade Hospital, Acibadem University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Aysun Ayaz Sari
- Department of Pediatric Neurology, School of Medicine, Istanbul University-Cerrahpaşa, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Michael Hershfield
- Department of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Funda Cipe
- Department of Pediatric Immunology and Allergy, University of Health Sciences, Basaksehir Cam and Sakura City Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey
- Department of Pediatric Allergy-Immunology & Pediatric Bone Marrow Transplantation Unit Altınbas University, Medical Park Bahcelievler Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Basak Adakli Aksoy
- Department of Pediatric Allergy-Immunology & Pediatric Bone Marrow Transplantation Unit Altınbas University, Medical Park Bahcelievler Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Gizem Zengin Ersoy
- Department of Pediatric Allergy-Immunology & Pediatric Bone Marrow Transplantation Unit Altınbas University, Medical Park Bahcelievler Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ceyhun Bozkurt
- Department of Pediatric Allergy-Immunology & Pediatric Bone Marrow Transplantation Unit Istinye University, Medical Park Bahcelievler Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey
| | | | - Gulyuz Ozturk
- Department of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Bone Marrow Transplantation Unit, School of Medicine, Altunizade Hospital, Acibadem University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Cigdem Aydogmus
- Department of Pediatric Immunology and Allergy, University of Health Sciences, Basaksehir Cam and Sakura City Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ayca Kiykim
- Department of Pediatric Immunology and Allergy, School of Medicine, Istanbul University-Cerrahpaşa, Istanbul, Turkey.
| | - Haluk Cokugras
- Department of Pediatric Immunology and Allergy, School of Medicine, Istanbul University-Cerrahpaşa, Istanbul, Turkey
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Habib Dzulkarnain SM, Hashim IF, Zainudeen ZT, Taib F, Mohamad N, Nasir A, Wan Ab Rahman WS, Ariffin H, Abd Hamid IJ. Purine Nucleoside Phosphorylase Deficient Severe Combined Immunodeficiencies: A Case Report and Systematic Review (1975-2022). J Clin Immunol 2023; 43:1623-1639. [PMID: 37328647 DOI: 10.1007/s10875-023-01532-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Purine nucleoside phosphorylase deficient severe combined immunodeficiency (PNP SCID) is one of the rare autosomal recessive primary immunodeficiency disease, and the data on epidemiology and outcome are limited. We report the successful management of a child with PNP SCID and present a systematic literature review of published case reports, case series, and cohort studies on PNP SCID listed in PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus from 1975 until March 2022. Forty-one articles were included from the 2432 articles retrieved and included 100 PNP SCID patients worldwide. Most patients presented with recurrent infections, hypogammaglobulinaemia, autoimmune manifestations, and neurological deficits. There were six reported cases of associated malignancies, mainly lymphomas. Twenty-two patients had undergone allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation with full donor chimerism seen mainly in those receiving matched sibling donors and/or conditioning chemotherapy before the transplant. This research provides a contemporary, comprehensive overview on clinical manifestations, epidemiology, genotype mutations, and transplant outcome of PNP SCID. These data highlight the importance of screening for PNP SCID in cases presented with recurrent infections, hypogammaglobulinaemia, and neurological deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syarifah Masyitah Habib Dzulkarnain
- Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases Group, Department of Clinical Medicine, Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Bertam 13200 Kepala Batas, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
- Cawangan Pulau Pinang, Fakulti Sains Kesihatan, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Kampus Bertam, 13200, Kepala Batas, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
| | - Ilie Fadzilah Hashim
- Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases Group, Department of Clinical Medicine, Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Bertam 13200 Kepala Batas, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
| | - Zarina Thasneem Zainudeen
- Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases Group, Department of Clinical Medicine, Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Bertam 13200 Kepala Batas, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
| | - Fahisham Taib
- Department of Paediatric, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
- Hospital USM, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Norsarwany Mohamad
- Department of Paediatric, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
- Hospital USM, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Ariffin Nasir
- Department of Paediatric, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
- Hospital USM, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Wan Suriana Wan Ab Rahman
- Hospital USM, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
- School of Dental Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Hany Ariffin
- Department of Paediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Intan Juliana Abd Hamid
- Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases Group, Department of Clinical Medicine, Advanced Medical and Dental Institute, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Bertam 13200 Kepala Batas, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia.
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Teke Kisa P, Arslan N. Inborn errors of immunity and metabolic disorders: current understanding, diagnosis, and treatment approaches. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2021; 34:277-294. [PMID: 33675210 DOI: 10.1515/jpem-2020-0277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Inborn errors of metabolism consist of a heterogeneous group of disorders with various organ systems manifestations, and some metabolic diseases also cause immunological disorders or dysregulation. In this review, metabolic diseases that affect the immunological system and particularly lead to primary immune deficiency will be reviewed. In a patient with frequent infections and immunodeficiency, the presence of symptoms such as growth retardation, abnormal facial appearance, heart, skeletal, lung deformities, skin findings, arthritis, motor developmental retardation, seizure, deafness, hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, impairment of liver function tests, the presence of anemia, thrombocytopenia and eosinophilia in hematological examinations should suggest metabolic diseases for the underlying cause. In some patients, these phenotypic findings may appear before the immunodeficiency picture. Metabolic diseases leading to immunological disorders are likely to be rare but probably underdiagnosed. Therefore, the presence of recurrent infections or autoimmune findings in a patient with a suspected metabolic disease should suggest that immune deficiency may also accompany the picture, and diagnostic examinations in this regard should be deepened.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pelin Teke Kisa
- Division of Pediatric Metabolism and Nutrition, Dokuz Eylul University Faculty of Medicine, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Nur Arslan
- Division of Pediatric Metabolism and Nutrition, Dokuz Eylul University Faculty of Medicine, Izmir, Turkey
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Grunebaum E, Campbell N, Leon-Ponte M, Xu X, Chapdelaine H. Partial Purine Nucleoside Phosphorylase Deficiency Helps Determine Minimal Activity Required for Immune and Neurological Development. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1257. [PMID: 32695102 PMCID: PMC7338719 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Complete or near complete absence of the purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP) enzyme causes a profound T cell immunodeficiency and neurological abnormalities that are often lethal in infancy and early childhood. We hypothesized that patients with partial PNP deficiency, characterized by a late and mild phenotype due to residual PNP enzyme, would provide important information about the minimal PNP activity needed for normal development. Methods: Three siblings with a homozygous PNP gene mutation (c.769C>G, p.His257Asp) resulting in partial PNP deficiency were investigated. PNP activity was semi-quantitively assayed by the conversion of [14C]inosine in hemolysates, mononuclear cells, and lymphoblastoid B cells. PNP protein expression was determined by Western Blotting in lymphoblastoid B cells. DNA repair was quantified by measuring viability of lymphoblastoid B cells following ionizing irradiation. Results: A 21-year-old female was referred for recurrent sino-pulmonary infections while her older male siblings, aged 25- and 28- years, did not suffer from significant infections. Two of the siblings had moderately reduced numbers of T, B, and NK cells, while the other had near normal lymphocyte subset numbers. T cell proliferations were normal in the two siblings tested. Hypogammaglobulinemia was noted in two siblings, including one that required immunoglobulin replacement. All siblings had typical (normal) neurological development. PNP activity in various cells from two patients were 8-11% of the normal level. All siblings had normal blood uric acid and increased PNP substrates in the urine. PNP protein expression in cells from the two patients examined was similar to that observed in cells from healthy controls. The survival of lymphoblastoid B cells from 2 partial PNP-deficient patients after irradiation was similar to that of PNP-proficient cells and markedly higher than the survival of cells from a patient with absent PNP activity or a patient with ataxia telangiectasia. Conclusions: Patients with partial PNP deficiency can present in the third decade of life with mild-moderate immune abnormalities and typical development. Near-normal immunity might be achieved with relatively low PNP activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eyal Grunebaum
- Division of Immunology and Allergy, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Developmental and Stem Cell Biology Program, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Nicholas Campbell
- Department of Medicine, Centre Hospitalier de I'Universite de Montreal, and Montreal Clinical Research Institute, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Matilde Leon-Ponte
- Developmental and Stem Cell Biology Program, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Xiaobai Xu
- Developmental and Stem Cell Biology Program, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Hugo Chapdelaine
- Department of Medicine, Centre Hospitalier de I'Universite de Montreal, and Montreal Clinical Research Institute, Montreal, QC, Canada
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Schejter YD, Even-Or E, Shadur B, NaserEddin A, Stepensky P, Zaidman I. The Broad Clinical Spectrum and Transplant Results of PNP Deficiency. J Clin Immunol 2019; 40:123-130. [PMID: 31707514 DOI: 10.1007/s10875-019-00698-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 09/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP) is a known yet rare cause of combined immunodeficiency with a heterogeneous clinical presentation. We aim to add to the expanding clinical spectrum of disease, and to summarize the available data on bone marrow transplant for this condition. METHODS Data was collected from patient files retrospectively. A review of the literature of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) for PNP deficiency was conducted. RESULTS Four patients were treated in two centers in Israel. One patient died of EBV-related lymphoma with CNS involvement prior to transplant. The other three patients underwent successful HSCT with good immune reconstitution post-transplant (follow-up 8-108 months) and excellent neurological outcomes. CONCLUSION PNP is a variable immunodeficiency and should be considered in various clinical contexts, with or without neurological manifestations. HSCT offers a good treatment option, with excellent clinical outcomes, when preformed in a timely manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yael Dinur Schejter
- Bone Marrow Transplantation Department, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel.
| | - Ehud Even-Or
- Bone Marrow Transplantation Department, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Bella Shadur
- Bone Marrow Transplantation Department, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel.,Immunology Division, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, Australia.,Graduate Research School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Adeeb NaserEddin
- Bone Marrow Transplantation Department, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Polina Stepensky
- Bone Marrow Transplantation Department, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Irina Zaidman
- Bone Marrow Transplantation Department, Hadassah-Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
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Fekrvand S, Yazdani R, Abolhassani H, Ghaffari J, Aghamohammadi A. The First Purine Nucleoside Phosphorylase Deficiency Patient Resembling IgA Deficiency and a Review of the Literature. Immunol Invest 2019; 48:410-430. [PMID: 30885031 DOI: 10.1080/08820139.2019.1570249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP) deficiency is a rare autosomal recessive primary immunodeficiency disorder characterized by decreased numbers of T-cells, variable B-cell abnormalities, decreased amount of serum uric acid and PNP enzyme activity. The affected patients usually present with recurrent infections, neurological dysfunction and autoimmune phenomena. In this study, whole-exome sequencing was used to detect mutation in the case suspected of having primary immunodeficiency. We found a homozygous mutation in PNP gene in a girl who is the third case from the national Iranian registry. She had combined immunodeficiency, autoimmune hemolytic anemia and a history of recurrent infections. She developed no neurological dysfunction. She died at the age of 11 after a severe chicken pox infection. PNP deficiency should be considered in late-onset children with recurrent infections, autoimmune disorders without typical neurologic impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saba Fekrvand
- a Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Pediatrics Center of Excellence, Children's Medical Center , Tehran, and the University of Medical Science , Tehran , Iran
| | - Reza Yazdani
- a Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Pediatrics Center of Excellence, Children's Medical Center , Tehran, and the University of Medical Science , Tehran , Iran
| | - Hassan Abolhassani
- a Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Pediatrics Center of Excellence, Children's Medical Center , Tehran, and the University of Medical Science , Tehran , Iran.,b Division of Clinical Immunology, Department of Laboratory Medicine , Karolinska Institute at Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge , Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Javad Ghaffari
- c Department of Pediatrics , Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences , Sari , Iran
| | - Asghar Aghamohammadi
- a Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Pediatrics Center of Excellence, Children's Medical Center , Tehran, and the University of Medical Science , Tehran , Iran
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Abstract
Transition state theory teaches that chemically stable mimics of enzymatic transition states will bind tightly to their cognate enzymes. Kinetic isotope effects combined with computational quantum chemistry provides enzymatic transition state information with sufficient fidelity to design transition state analogues. Examples are selected from various stages of drug development to demonstrate the application of transition state theory, inhibitor design, physicochemical characterization of transition state analogues, and their progress in drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vern L. Schramm
- Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, New York 10461, United States
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Park M, Xu X, Min W, Sugiman-Marangos SN, Beilhartz GL, Adams JJ, Sidhu SS, Grunebaum E, Melnyk RA. Intracellular Delivery of Human Purine Nucleoside Phosphorylase by Engineered Diphtheria Toxin Rescues Function in Target Cells. Mol Pharm 2018; 15:5217-5226. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.8b00735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Jarret J. Adams
- Banting and Best Department of Medical Research, Terrence Donnelly Center for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Sachdev S. Sidhu
- Banting and Best Department of Medical Research, Terrence Donnelly Center for Cellular and Biomolecular Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada
| | - Eyal Grunebaum
- Division of Immunology and Allergy, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
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Tsui M, Biro J, Chan J, Min W, Grunebaum E. Use of induced pluripotent stem cells to investigate the effects of purine nucleoside phosphorylase deficiency on neuronal development. LymphoSign Journal 2018; 5:49-56. [DOI: 10.14785/lymphosign-2018-0003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Background: Inherited defects in the function of the purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP) enzyme can cause severe T cell immune deficiency and early death from infection, autoimmunity, or malignancy. In addition, more than 50% of patients suffer diverse non-infectious neurological complications. However the cause for the neurological abnormalities are not known. Objectives: Differentiate induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) from PNP-deficient patients into neuronal cells to better understand the effects of impaired purine metabolism on neuronal development. Methods: Sendai virus was used to generate pluripotent stem cells from PNP-deficient and healthy control lymphoblastoid cells. Cells were differentiated into neuronal cells through the formation of embryoid bodies. Results: After demonstration of pluripotency, normal karyotype, and retention of the PNP deficiency state, iPSC were differentiated into neuronal cells. PNP-deficient neuronal cells had reduced soma and nuclei size in comparison to cells derived from healthy controls. Spontaneous apoptosis, determined by Caspase-3 expression, was increased in PNP-deficient cells. Conclusions: iPSC from PNP-deficient patients can be differentiated into neuronal cells, thereby providing an important tool to study the effects of impaired purine metabolism on neuronal development and potential treatments. Statement of novelty: We report here the first generation and use of neuronal cells derived from induced pluripotent stem cells to model human PNP deficiency, thereby providing an important tool for better understanding and management of this condition.
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CHAVOSHZADEH Z, HASHEMITARI A, DAROUGAR S. Neurological Manifestations of Primary Immunodeficiencies. Iran J Child Neurol 2018; 12:7-23. [PMID: 30026765 PMCID: PMC6045935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2018] [Revised: 05/30/2018] [Accepted: 06/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Primary immunodeficiencies (PID) are a heterogeneous group of disorders with a variable clinical spectrum of manifestations. The central nervous system may be involved in PID with symptoms which may present initially or develop at later stages. The purpose of this study was to review the neurological manifestations of different PID syndromes. MATERIALS & METHODS We focused on 104 selected studies on PID with certain neurological abnormalities which may accompany these disorders or may later signify a PID in their course. RESULTS Diverse neurological deficits accompanying certain PIDs may be mild or they may greatly influence the course of the disease with major impacts on the quality of life of these patients. CONCLUSION Early recognition and treatment is important to prevent or reduce future irreversible neurological sequelae. Therefore physicians should be aware of the neurological features accompanying PID.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra CHAVOSHZADEH
- Department of Immunology and Allergy, Mofid’s Children Hospital, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Sepideh DAROUGAR
- Pediatric Respiratory Diseases Research Center, National Research Institute of Tuberculosis and Lung Diseases (NRITLD), Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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