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Trojani MC, Clavé A, Bereder I, Camuzard O, Bernard De Dompsure R, Gonzalez JF, Trojani C, Santucci-Darmanin S, Carle GF, Breuil V, Pierrefite-Carle V. Autophagy markers are decreased in bone of osteoporotic patients: a monocentric comparative study. Eur J Endocrinol 2024; 190:K27-K31. [PMID: 38430550 DOI: 10.1093/ejendo/lvae017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2023] [Revised: 02/02/2024] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/04/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Osteoporosis (OP) is a pathology characterized by bone fragility affecting 30% of postmenopausal women, mainly due to estrogen deprivation and increased oxidative stress. An autophagy involvement is suspected in OP pathogenesis but a definitive proof in humans remains to be obtained. METHODS Postmenopausal women hospitalized for femoral neck fracture (OP group) or total hip replacement (Control group) were enrolled using very strict exclusion criteria. Western blot was used to analyze autophagy level. RESULTS The protein expression level of the autophagosome marker LC3-II was significantly decreased in bone of OP patients relative to the control group. In addition, the protein expression of the hormonally upregulated neu-associated kinase (HUNK), which is upregulated by female hormones and promotes autophagy, was also significantly reduced in bone of the OP group. CONCLUSIONS These results demonstrate for the first time that postmenopausal OP patients have a deficit in bone autophagy level and suggest that HUNK could be the factor linking estrogen loss and autophagy decline. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03175874, 2/6/2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Charlotte Trojani
- Université Côte d'Azur, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), UMR E4320 TIRO-MATOs, 06107 Nice, France
- Service de Rhumatologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, Hôpital Pasteur II, 06000 Nice, France
| | - Arnaud Clavé
- Université Côte d'Azur, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), UMR E4320 TIRO-MATOs, 06107 Nice, France
- Service de Chirurgie Orthopédique, Clinique Saint Georges, 06105 Nice, France
| | - Isabelle Bereder
- Service de Gériatrie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, Hôpital de Cimiez, 06000 Nice, France
| | - Olivier Camuzard
- Université Côte d'Azur, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), UMR E4320 TIRO-MATOs, 06107 Nice, France
- Service de Chirurgie Réparatrice, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, Hôpital Pasteur II, 06000 Nice, France
| | - Régis Bernard De Dompsure
- Service de Chirurgie Orthopédique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, Hôpital Pasteur II, 06000 Nice, France
| | - Jean-François Gonzalez
- Service de Chirurgie Orthopédique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, Hôpital Pasteur II, 06000 Nice, France
| | | | - Sabine Santucci-Darmanin
- Université Côte d'Azur, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), UMR E4320 TIRO-MATOs, 06107 Nice, France
- CNRS, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Georges F Carle
- Université Côte d'Azur, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), UMR E4320 TIRO-MATOs, 06107 Nice, France
- CNRS, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Véronique Breuil
- Université Côte d'Azur, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), UMR E4320 TIRO-MATOs, 06107 Nice, France
- Service de Rhumatologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Nice, Hôpital Pasteur II, 06000 Nice, France
| | - Valérie Pierrefite-Carle
- Université Côte d'Azur, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), UMR E4320 TIRO-MATOs, 06107 Nice, France
- INSERM, 75013 Paris, France
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2
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Dilday T, Abt M, Ramos-Solís N, Dayal N, Larocque E, Oblak AL, Sintim HO, Yeh ES. Identification and characterization of a potent and selective HUNK inhibitor for treatment of HER2+ breast cancer. Cell Chem Biol 2024:S2451-9456(24)00037-0. [PMID: 38307028 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2024.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Revised: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 02/04/2024]
Abstract
Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)-targeted agents have proven to be effective, however, the development of resistance to these agents has become an obstacle in treating HER2+ breast cancer. Evidence implicates HUNK as an anti-cancer target for primary and resistant HER2+ breast cancers. In this study, a selective inhibitor of HUNK is characterized alongside a phosphorylation event in a downstream substrate of HUNK as a marker for HUNK activity in HER2+ breast cancer. Rubicon has been established as a substrate of HUNK that is phosphorylated at serine (S) 92. Findings indicate that HUNK-mediated phosphorylation of Rubicon at S92 promotes both autophagy and tumorigenesis in HER2/neu+ breast cancer. HUNK inhibition prevents Rubicon S92 phosphorylation in HER2/neu+ breast cancer models and inhibits tumorigenesis. This study characterizes a downstream phosphorylation event as a measure of HUNK activity and identifies a selective HUNK inhibitor that has meaningful efficacy toward HER2+ breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tinslee Dilday
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine (IUSM), Simon Cancer Center, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | - Melissa Abt
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine (IUSM), Simon Cancer Center, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | - Nicole Ramos-Solís
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine (IUSM), Simon Cancer Center, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | - Neetu Dayal
- Purdue Institute for Drug Discovery and Purdue Institute for Cancer Research, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Elizabeth Larocque
- Purdue Institute for Drug Discovery and Purdue Institute for Cancer Research, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Adrian L Oblak
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, IUSM, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
| | - Herman O Sintim
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN 47907, USA; Purdue Institute for Drug Discovery and Purdue Institute for Cancer Research, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Elizabeth S Yeh
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine (IUSM), Simon Cancer Center, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
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3
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Han X, Jiang S, Gu Y, Ding L, Zhao E, Cao D, Wang X, Wen Y, Pan Y, Yan X, Duan L, Sun M, Zhou T, Liu Y, Hu H, Ye Q, Gao S. HUNK inhibits epithelial-mesenchymal transition of CRC via direct phosphorylation of GEF-H1 and activating RhoA/LIMK-1/CFL-1. Cell Death Dis 2023; 14:327. [PMID: 37193711 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-023-05849-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is associated with the invasive and metastatic phenotypes in colorectal cancer (CRC). However, the mechanisms underlying EMT in CRC are not completely understood. In this study, we find that HUNK inhibits EMT and metastasis of CRC cells via its substrate GEF-H1 in a kinase-dependent manner. Mechanistically, HUNK directly phosphorylates GEF-H1 at serine 645 (S645) site, which activates RhoA and consequently leads to a cascade of phosphorylation of LIMK-1/CFL-1, thereby stabilizing F-actin and inhibiting EMT. Clinically, the levels of both HUNK expression and phosphorylation S645 of GEH-H1 are not only downregulated in CRC tissues with metastasis compared with that without metastasis, but also positively correlated among these tissues. Our findings highlight the importance of HUNK kinase direct phosphorylation of GEF-H1 in regulation of EMT and metastasis of CRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqi Han
- Medical School of Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, China
- Shanxi Academy of Advanced Research and Innovation, Taiyuan, 030032, China
- Zhongda Hospital, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Advanced Institute for Life and Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China
| | - Siyuan Jiang
- Zhongda Hospital, Medical School, Advanced Institute for Life and Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China
| | - Yinmin Gu
- Zhongda Hospital, Medical School, Advanced Institute for Life and Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China
| | - Lihua Ding
- Department of Medical Molecular Biology, Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Beijing, 100850, China
| | - Enhao Zhao
- Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, 201200, China
| | - Dongxing Cao
- Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai, 201200, China
| | - Xiaodong Wang
- Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215163, China
| | - Ya Wen
- Medical School of Guizhou University, Guiyang, 550025, China
- Shanxi Academy of Advanced Research and Innovation, Taiyuan, 030032, China
| | - Yongbo Pan
- Shanxi Academy of Advanced Research and Innovation, Taiyuan, 030032, China
| | - Xin Yan
- Shanxi Academy of Advanced Research and Innovation, Taiyuan, 030032, China
| | - Liqiang Duan
- Shanxi Academy of Advanced Research and Innovation, Taiyuan, 030032, China
| | - Minxuan Sun
- Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215163, China
| | - Tao Zhou
- Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215163, China
| | - Yajuan Liu
- Shanxi Academy of Advanced Research and Innovation, Taiyuan, 030032, China
| | - Hongbo Hu
- Center for Immunology and Hematology, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Sichuan, 610044, China.
| | - Qinong Ye
- Department of Medical Molecular Biology, Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Beijing, 100850, China.
| | - Shan Gao
- Zhongda Hospital, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Advanced Institute for Life and Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China.
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4
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Ramos-Solis N, Dilday T, Kritikos AE, Yeh ES. HUNK Gene Alterations in Breast Cancer. Biomedicines 2022; 10. [PMID: 36551828 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10123072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Revised: 11/14/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Hormonally upregulated neu-associated kinase (HUNK) is a serine/threonine (S/T) protein kinase related to the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) family of kinases. HUNK was originally discovered using a screen to identify kinases expressed in the mouse mammary gland. Therefore, the majority of studies to date have been carried out in models specific to this tissue, and the kinase was named to reflect its mammary gland-specific physiology and pathology. Prior studies show a clear pathogenic role for HUNK in breast cancer. HUNK is upregulated in response to oncogenic HER2/neu and Akt, and there is strong evidence that HUNK is critical for the survival of breast cancer cells. Further evidence shows that inhibiting HUNK using a variety of breast cancer models, including those that are resistant, inhibits tumorigenesis and metastasis. However, HUNK alterations are infrequent. Here, the incidence and consequence of HUNK alterations in breast cancer is reviewed using data mined from the online database cBioPortal and considered in relation to prior research studies.
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5
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Peña-Martinez C, Rickman AD, Heckmann BL. Beyond autophagy: LC3-associated phagocytosis and endocytosis. Sci Adv 2022; 8:eabn1702. [PMID: 36288309 PMCID: PMC9604515 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abn1702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Noncanonical functions of the autophagy machinery in pathways including LC3-associated phagocytosis and LC3-associated endocytosis have garnered increasing interest in both normal physiology and pathobiology. New discoveries over the past decade of noncanonical uses of the autophagy machinery in these distinct molecular mechanisms have led to robust investigation into the roles of single-membrane LC3 lipidation. Noncanonical autophagy pathways have now been implicated in the regulation of multiple processes ranging from debris clearance, cellular signaling, and immune regulation and inflammation. Accumulating evidence is demonstrating roles in a variety of disease states including host-pathogen responses, autoimmunity, cancer, and neurological and neurodegenerative pathologies. Here, we broadly summarize the differences in the mechanistic regulation between autophagy and LAP and LANDO and highlight some of the key roles of LAP and LANDO in innate immune function, inflammation, and disease pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Peña-Martinez
- Department of Molecular Medicine, USF Morsani College of Medicine, Tampa, FL, USA
- Byrd Alzheimer’s Center, USF Health Neuroscience Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Alexis D. Rickman
- Department of Molecular Medicine, USF Morsani College of Medicine, Tampa, FL, USA
- Byrd Alzheimer’s Center, USF Health Neuroscience Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Bradlee L. Heckmann
- Department of Molecular Medicine, USF Morsani College of Medicine, Tampa, FL, USA
- Byrd Alzheimer’s Center, USF Health Neuroscience Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
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6
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Abstract
Autophagy is a conserved cellular degradation system that maintains intracellular homeostasis. Cytoplasmic components are engulfed into double-membrane vesicles called autophagosomes, which fuse with lysosomes, and resulting in the degradation of sequestered materials. Recently, a close association between autophagy and the pathogenesis of metabolic diseases and ageing has become apparent: autophagy is dysregulated during metabolic diseases and ageing; dysregulation of autophagy is intimately associated with the pathophysiology. Rubicon (Run domain Beclin-1 interacting and cysteine-rich containing protein) has been identified as a Beclin-1 associated protein. Notably, Rubicon is one of few negative regulators of autophagy whereas many autophagy-related genes are positive regulators of autophagy. Rubicon also has autophagy-independent functions including phagocytosis and endocytosis. In this mini-review, we focus on the various roles of Rubicon in different organs in the settings of metabolic diseases and ageing, and discuss its potential role as a promising therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Minami
- Department of Genetics, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita, Japan
| | - Shuhei Nakamura
- Department of Genetics, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita, Japan.,Department of Intracellular Membrane Dynamics, Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Suita, Japan.,Institute for Advanced Co-Creation Studies, Osaka University, Suita, Japan
| | - Tamotsu Yoshimori
- Department of Genetics, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita, Japan.,Department of Intracellular Membrane Dynamics, Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Suita, Japan.,Integrated Frontier Research for Medical Science Division, Institute for Open and Transdisciplinary Research Initiatives, Osaka University, Suita, Japan
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7
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Nah J, Zablocki D, Sadoshima J. The roles of the inhibitory autophagy regulator Rubicon in the heart: A new therapeutic target to prevent cardiac cell death. Exp Mol Med 2021; 53:528-536. [PMID: 33854187 PMCID: PMC8102471 DOI: 10.1038/s12276-021-00600-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy contributes to the maintenance of cardiac homeostasis. The level of autophagy is dynamically altered in heart disease. Although autophagy is a promising therapeutic target, only a few selective autophagy activator candidates have been reported thus far. Rubicon is one of the few endogenous negative regulators of autophagy and a potential target for autophagy-inducing therapeutics. Rubicon was initially identified as a component of the Class III PI3K complex, and it has multiple functions, not only in canonical autophagy but also in endosomal trafficking and inflammatory responses. This review summarizes the molecular action of Rubicon in canonical and noncanonical autophagy. We discuss the roles of Rubicon in cardiac stress and the therapeutic potential of Rubicon in cardiac diseases through its modulation of autophagy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jihoon Nah
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Medicine, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, USA.
| | - Daniela Zablocki
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Medicine, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Junichi Sadoshima
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Medicine, Cardiovascular Research Institute, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, USA.
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8
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Gubas A, Karantanou C, Popovic D, Tascher G, Hoffmann ME, Platzek A, Dawe N, Dikic I, Krause DS, McEwan DG. The endolysosomal adaptor PLEKHM1 is a direct target for both mTOR and MAPK pathways. FEBS Lett 2021; 595:864-880. [PMID: 33452816 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The lysosome is a cellular signalling hub at the point of convergence of endocytic and autophagic pathways, where the contents are degraded and recycled. Pleckstrin homology domain-containing family member 1 (PLEKHM1) acts as an adaptor to facilitate the fusion of endocytic and autophagic vesicles with the lysosome. However, it is unclear how PLEKHM1 function at the lysosome is controlled. Herein, we show that PLEKHM1 coprecipitates with, and is directly phosphorylated by, mTOR. Using a phosphospecific antibody against Ser432/S435 of PLEKHM1, we show that the same motif is a direct target for ERK2-mediated phosphorylation in a growth factor-dependent manner. This dual regulation of PLEKHM1 at a highly conserved region points to a convergence of both growth factor- and amino acid-sensing pathways, placing PLEKHM1 at a critical juncture of cellular metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Gubas
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biochemistry II, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Christina Karantanou
- Georg-Speyer-Haus, Institute for Tumor Biology and Experimental Medicine, Frankfurt, Germany.,Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Doris Popovic
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biochemistry II, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Georg Tascher
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biochemistry II, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Marina E Hoffmann
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biochemistry II, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Anna Platzek
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biochemistry II, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Nina Dawe
- Division of Cell Signalling & Immunology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, UK
| | - Ivan Dikic
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biochemistry II, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Buchmann Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Max Planck Institute of Biophysics, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Daniela S Krause
- Georg-Speyer-Haus, Institute for Tumor Biology and Experimental Medicine, Frankfurt, Germany.,Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - David G McEwan
- Division of Cell Signalling & Immunology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, UK.,Cancer Research UK Beatson Institute, Garscube Estate, Glasgow, UK
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9
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Alherz M, Lee D, Alshangiti A, Roddy D, O'Keeffe G, White R, Barry D. The Growth Response to Beta-Hydroxybutyrate in SH-SY5Y Neuroblastoma Cells is Suppressed by Glucose and Pyruvate Supplementation. Neurochem Res 2021; 46:701-709. [PMID: 33389384 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-020-03203-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Neuroblastoma (NB) is a childhood malignancy of the sympathetic nervous system and is commonly studied using the SH-SY5Y cell line. Its neoplastic and neurodevelopmental manifestations are characterised by a high glucose demand which maintains its high proliferative capacity. This metabolic phenotype may be utilised in dietary therapies such as the ketone diet which alter substrate availability and thus starve NB cells of their preferred biosynthetic requirements. However, the effects of ketone metabolism on cancer growth remain poorly understood due to the involvement of other metabolic substrates in experimental paradigms and complexities underlying the Warburg effect. We investigated how the primary ketone body beta-hydroxybutyrate (βOHB) affects the growth of SH-SY5Y NB cells in the presence or absence of culture metabolic substrates. We demonstrated that while glucose deprivation reduced the growth and viability of SH-SY5Y cells, they proliferated and were initially unaffected by the addition of βOHB. However, a growth response to βOHB was subsequently revealed in media containing low levels of glucose, as well as in glucose and pyruvate deprived conditions. These data shed light on the roles of metabolic substrate availability as key determinants of the responses of SH-SY5Y NB cells to ketone supplementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Alherz
- Department of Anatomy, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - David Lee
- Department of Anatomy, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Amnah Alshangiti
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Darren Roddy
- Department of Anatomy, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Gerard O'Keeffe
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Robin White
- Department of Biology, Westfield State University, Westfield, MA, 01086, USA
| | - Denis Barry
- Department of Anatomy, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.
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