Free Radical-Mediated Protein Radical Formation in Differentiating Monocytes

NOX2 and NOX4 expression in monocytes and macrophages-extracellular vesicles in signalling and therapeutics

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a type of cytoplasmic vesicles secreted by a variety of cells. EVs originating from cells have been known to participate in cell communication, antigen presentation, immune cell activation, tolerance induction, etc. These EVs can also carry the active form of Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate Oxidase Hydrogen (NADPH) oxidase, which is very essential for the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and that can then modulate processes such as cell regeneration. The aim of this study is to characterize the EVs isolated from U-937 and THP-1 cells, identify the NADPH oxidase (NOX) isoforms, and to determine whether EVs can modulate NOX4 and NOX2 in monocytes and macrophages. In our study, isolated EVs of U-937 were characterized using dynamic light scattering (DLS) spectroscopy and immunoblotting. The results showed that the exogenous addition of differentiation agents (either phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) or ascorbic acid) or the supplementation of EVs used in the study did not cause any stress leading to alterations in cell proliferation and viability. In cells co-cultured with EVs for 72 h, strong suppression of NOX4 and NOX2 is evident when monocytes transform into macrophagic cells. We also observed lower levels of oxidative stress measured using immunoblotting and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy under the EVs co-cultured condition, which also indicates that EVs might contribute significantly by acting as an antioxidant source, which agrees with previous studies that hypothesized the role of EVs in therapeutics. Therefore, our results provide evidence for NOX regulation by EVs in addition to its role as an antioxidant cargo.

ROS signaling in innate immunity via oxidative protein modifications

The innate immune response represents the first-line of defense against invading pathogens. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) have been implicated in various aspects of innate immune function, which involves respiratory bursts and inflammasome activation. These reactive species widely distributed within the cellular environment are short-lived intermediates that play a vital role in cellular signaling and proliferation and are likely to depend on their subcellular site of formation. NADPH oxidase complex of phagocytes is known to generate superoxide anion radical (O2 •-) that functions as a precursor for antimicrobial hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) production, and H2O2 is utilized by myeloperoxidase (MPO) to generate hypochlorous acid (HOCl) that mediates pathogen killing. H2O2 modulates the expression of redox-responsive transcriptional factors, namely NF-kB, NRF2, and HIF-1, thereby mediating redox-based epigenetic modification. Survival and function of immune cells are under redox control and depend on intracellular and extracellular levels of ROS/RNS. The current review focuses on redox factors involved in the activation of immune response and the role of ROS in oxidative modification of proteins in macrophage polarization and neutrophil function.

Differential effects of ascorbic acid on monocytic cell morphology and protein modification: Shifting from pro-oxidative to antioxidant properties

In this study, we investigated the properties of ascorbic acid (vitamin C), which is a naturally occurring water-soluble vitamin. Our goal is to evaluate its pro-oxidative and/or antioxidant capabilities. To do this, we initially used a confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM) to visualize the differentiation pattern in U-937 cells under the treatment of variable concentrations of ascorbic acid. Prior to induction, U-937 cells showed a spherical morphology. After treatment, significant morphological changes were observed in the form of prominent pseudopodia and amoeboid structures. Interestingly, pseudopodia incidences increased with an increase in ascorbic acid concentrations. In addition, our analysis of protein modification using anti-malondialdehyde antibodies showed changes in more than one protein. The findings reveal the link between the differentiation of U-937 cells into macrophages and the protein modifications triggered by the production of reactive oxygen species when U-937 cells are exposed to ascorbic acid. Furthermore, the transformation of ascorbic acid from a pro-oxidative to an antioxidant property is also demonstrated.

Detection and characterization of free oxygen radicals induced protein adduct formation in differentiating macrophages

Reactive oxygen species play a key role in cellular homeostasis and redox signaling at physiological levels, where excessive production affects the function and integrity of macromolecules, specifically proteins. Therefore, it is important to define radical-mediated proteotoxic stress in macrophages and identify target protein to prevent tissue dysfunction. A well employed, THP-1 cell line was utilized as in vitro model to study immune response and herein we employ immuno-spin trapping technique to investigate radical-mediated protein oxidation in macrophages. Hydroxyl radical formation along macrophage differentiation was confirmed by electron paramagnetic resonance along with confocal laser scanning microscopy using hydroxyphenyl fluorescein. Lipid peroxidation product, malondialdehyde, generated under experimental conditions as detected using swallow-tailed perylene derivative fluorescence observed by confocal laser scanning microscopy and high-performance liquid chromatography, respectively. The results obtained from this study warrant further corroboration and study of specific proteins involved in the macrophage activation and their role in inflammations.

Wound Healing versus Metastasis: Role of Oxidative Stress

Many signaling pathways, molecular and cellular actors which are critical for wound healing have been implicated in cancer metastasis. These two conditions are a complex succession of cellular biological events and accurate regulation of these events is essential. Apart from inflammation, macrophages-released ROS arise as major regulators of these processes. But, whatever the pathology concerned, oxidative stress is a complicated phenomenon to control and requires a finely tuned balance over the different stages and responding cells. This review provides an overview of the pivotal role of oxidative stress in both wound healing and metastasis, encompassing the contribution of macrophages. Indeed, macrophages are major ROS producers but also appear as their targets since ROS interfere with their differentiation and function. Elucidating ROS functions in wound healing and metastatic spread may allow the development of innovative therapeutic strategies involving redox modulators.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis whiB3 and Lipid Metabolism Genes Are Regulated by Host Induced Oxidative Stress

The physiological state of the human macrophage may impact the metabolism and the persistence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. This pathogen senses and counters the levels of O₂, CO, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and pH in macrophages. M. tuberculosis responds to oxidative stress through WhiB3. The goal was to determine the effect of NADPH oxidase (NOX) modulation and oxidative agents on the expression of whiB3 and genes involved in lipid metabolism (lip-Y, Icl-1, and tgs-1) in intracellular mycobacteria. Human macrophages were first treated with NOX modulators such as DPI (ROS inhibitor) and PMA (ROS activator), or with oxidative agents (H₂O₂ and generator system O₂^•-), and then infected with mycobacteria. We determined ROS production, cell viability, and expression of whiB3, as well as genes involved in lipid metabolism. PMA, H₂O₂, and O₂^•- increased ROS production in human macrophages, generating oxidative stress in bacteria and augmented the gene expression of whiB3, lip-Y, Icl-1, and tgs-1. Our results suggest that ROS production in macrophages induces oxidative stress in intracellular bacteria inducing whiB3 expression. This factor may activate the synthesis of reserve lipids produced to survive in the latency state, which allows its persistence for long periods within the host.

Bioactive Compounds and Their Impact on Protein Modification in Human Cells

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) represent a group of molecules with a signaling role that are involved in regulating human cell proliferation and differentiation. Increased ROS concentrations are often associated with the local nonspecific oxidation of biological macromolecules, especially proteins and lipids. Free radicals, in general, may randomly damage protein molecules through the formation of protein-centered radicals as intermediates that, in turn, decay into several end oxidation products. Malondialdehyde (MDA), a marker of free-radical-mediated lipid oxidation and cell membrane damage, forms adducts with proteins in a nonspecific manner, leading to the loss of their function. In our study, we utilized U-937 cells as a model system to unveil the effect of four selected bioactive compounds (chlorogenic acid, oleuropein, tomatine, and tyrosol) to reduce oxidative stress associated with adduct formation in differentiating cells. The purity of the compounds under study was confirmed by an HPLC analysis. The cellular integrity and changes in the morphology of differentiated U-937 cells were confirmed with confocal microscopy, and no significant toxicity was found in the presence of bioactive compounds. From the Western blot analysis, a reduction in the MDA adduct formation was observed in cells treated with compounds that underlaid the beneficial effects of the compounds tested.

Suppression of the hyaluronic acid pathway induces M1 macrophages polarization via STAT1 in glioblastoma

Immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment is a crucial factor that impedes the success of tumor immunotherapy, and tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are essential for the formation of tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment. Hyaluronic acid (HA) is highly important brick for glioblastoma microenvironment, but whether it contributes to TAM polarization and glioblastoma immunosuppressive microenvironment is less well known. In our study, we observed that disrupting glioblastoma HA synthesis or blocking HA binding to its receptor CD44 on macrophages increased the proportion of M1 macrophages by upregulating SIRPα in macrophages, the underlying mechanism was elevated SIRPα enhanced STAT1 phosphorylation and suppressed STAT3 phosphorylation in macrophages. Subsequently, the induced macrophages could inhibit glioblastoma growth via a feedback effect. In addition, 4-methylumbelliferone (4MU), a cholecystitis drug, can disrupt the CD47/SIRPα axis by disturbing glioblastoma HA synthesis. Collectively, these findings indicated that HA plays a crucial role in macrophages polarization and CD47/SIRPα signaling between glioblastoma cells and macrophages, and suppressing the HA pathway may be a new immunotherapeutic approach for glioblastoma.

The BCAT1 CXXC Motif Provides Protection against ROS in Acute Myeloid Leukaemia Cells

The cytosolic branched-chain aminotransferase (BCAT1) has received attention for its role in myeloid leukaemia development, where studies indicate metabolic adaptations due to BCAT1 up-regulation. BCAT1, like the mitochondria isoform (BCAT2), shares a conserved CXXC motif ~10 Å from the active site. This CXXC motif has been shown to act as a ‘redox-switch’ in the enzymatic regulation of the BCAT proteins, however the response to reactive oxygen species (ROS) differs between BCAT isoforms. Studies indicate that the BCAT1 CXXC motif is several orders of magnitude less sensitive to the effects of ROS compared with BCAT2. Moreover, estimation of the reduction mid-point potential of BCAT1, indicates that BCAT1 is more reductive in nature and may possess antioxidant properties. Therefore, the aim of this study was to further characterise the BCAT1 CXXC motif and evaluate its role in acute myeloid leukaemia. Our biochemical analyses show that purified wild-type (WT) BCAT1 protein could metabolise H₂O₂ in vitro, whereas CXXC motif mutant or WT BCAT2 could not, demonstrating for the first time a novel antioxidant role for the BCAT1 CXXC motif. Transformed U937 AML cells over-expressing WT BCAT1, showed lower levels of intracellular ROS compared with cells over-expressing the CXXC motif mutant (CXXS) or Vector Controls, indicating that the BCAT1 CXXC motif may buffer intracellular ROS, impacting on cell proliferation. U937 AML cells over-expressing WT BCAT1 displayed less cellular differentiation, as observed by a reduction of the myeloid markers; CD11b, CD14, CD68, and CD36. This finding suggests a role for the BCAT1 CXXC motif in cell development, which is an important pathological feature of myeloid leukaemia, a disease characterised by a block in myeloid differentiation. Furthermore, WT BCAT1 cells were more resistant to apoptosis compared with CXXS BCAT1 cells, an important observation given the role of ROS in apoptotic signalling and myeloid leukaemia development. Since CD36 has been shown to be Nrf2 regulated, we investigated the expression of the Nrf2 regulated gene, TrxRD1. Our data show that the expression of TrxRD1 was downregulated in transformed U937 AML cells overexpressing WT BCAT1, which taken with the reduction in CD36 implicates less Nrf2 activation. Therefore, this finding may implicate the BCAT1 CXXC motif in wider cellular redox-mediated processes. Altogether, this study provides the first evidence to suggest that the BCAT1 CXXC motif may contribute to the buffering of ROS levels inside AML cells, which may impact ROS-mediated processes in the development of myeloid leukaemia.