Weak Satiety Responsiveness Is a Reliable Trait Associated with Hedonic Risk Factors for Overeating among Women

Visceral sensitivity, hunger responsiveness, and satiety responsiveness: Associations between facets of gastrointestinal interoception and disordered eating profiles in an undergraduate sample

This preregistered study examined associations between empirically derived profiles of disordered eating in a diverse nonclinical sample and three facets of gastrointestinal (GI) interoception (visceral sensitivity, hunger responsiveness, satiety responsiveness). University students (n = 591; 53.3% women; 23.0% Hispanic) completed the Visceral Sensitivity Index, Adult Eating Behavior Questionnaire, and Eating Pathology Symptom Inventory. Latent profile analysis was conducted in Mplus v8.3 with four behavioral indicators (restricting, binge eating, excessive exercise, purging [binary]). Facets of GI interoception predicting odds of disordered eating profile membership compared to an asymptomatic group were evaluated. Five profiles were identified. Facets of GI interoception differentially predicted odds of membership in disordered eating profiles. However, higher scores on all three facets of GI interoception were associated with increased odds of membership in a high disordered eating profile. The relationship between distinct facets of GI interoception and specific disordered eating patterns appears nuanced, though individuals displaying a range of disordered eating behaviors may exhibit broad GI interoceptive dysfunction. Findings are consistent with the recent emphasis on idiographic treatment approaches for disordered eating and may have implications for screening among university students. Prospective longitudinal work and extension to clinical samples is needed.

Fasting diets: what are the impacts on eating behaviors, sleep, mood, and well-being?

Fasting diets (FDs) have drawn great attention concerning their contribution to health and disease over the last decade. Despite considerable interest in FDs, the effect of fasting diets on eating behaviors, sleep, and mood-essential components of diet satisfaction and mental health- has not been addressed comprehensively. Understanding the critical role that fasting plays in these elements will open up potential treatment avenues that have not yet been explored. The aim of the present paper was to conduct a comprehensive critical review exploring the effects of fasting on eating behaviors, sleep, and mood. There is currently a lack of clarity regarding which fasting option yields the most advantageous effects, and there is also a scarcity of consistent trials that assess the effects of FDs in a comparable manner. Similarly, the effects and/or treatment options for utilizing FDs to modify eating and sleep behaviors and enhance mood are still poorly understood. Further researches aiming at understanding the impacts of various fasting regimes, providing new insights into the gut-brain axis and offering new treatment avenues for those with resistant anxiety and depression, are warranted. Alteration of eating behaviors can have lasting effects on various physiological parameters. The use of fasting cures can underpin ancient knowledge with scientific evidence to form a new approach to the prevention and treatment of problems associated with co-morbidities or challenges pertaining to eating behaviors. Therefore, a thorough examination of the various fasting regimens and how they impact disease patterns is also warranted.

No Evidence That Circulating GLP-1 or PYY Are Associated with Increased Satiety during Low Energy Diet-Induced Weight Loss: Modelling Biomarkers of Appetite

Bariatric surgery and pharmacology treatments increase circulating glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and peptide YY (PYY), in turn promoting satiety and body weight (BW) loss. However, the utility of GLP-1 and PYY in predicting appetite response during dietary interventions remains unsubstantiated. This study investigated whether the decrease in hunger observed following low energy diet (LED)-induced weight loss was associated with increased circulating 'satiety peptides', and/or associated changes in glucose, glucoregulatory peptides or amino acids (AAs). In total, 121 women with obesity underwent an 8-week LED intervention, of which 32 completed an appetite assessment via a preload challenge at both Week 0 and Week 8, and are reported here. Visual analogue scales (VAS) were administered to assess appetite-related responses, and blood samples were collected over 210 min post-preload. The area under the curve (AUC_0-210), incremental AUC (iAUC_0-210), and change from Week 0 to Week 8 (∆) were calculated. Multiple linear regression was used to test the association between VAS-appetite responses and blood biomarkers. Mean (±SEM) BW loss was 8.4 ± 0.5 kg (-8%). Unexpectedly, the decrease in ∆AUC_0-210 hunger was best associated with decreased ∆AUC_0-210 GLP-1, GIP, and valine (p < 0.05, all), and increased ∆AUC_0-210 glycine and proline (p < 0.05, both). The majority of associations remained significant after adjusting for BW and fat-free mass loss. There was no evidence that changes in circulating GLP-1 or PYY were predictive of changes in appetite-related responses. The modelling suggested that other putative blood biomarkers of appetite, such as AAs, should be further investigated in future larger longitudinal dietary studies.

Nuts, Energy Balance and Body Weight

Over several decades, the health benefits of consuming nuts have been investigated, resulting in a large body of evidence that nuts can reduce the risk of chronic diseases. The consumption of nuts, being a higher-fat plant food, is restricted by some in order to minimize weight gain. In this review, we discuss several factors related to energy intake from nuts, including food matrix and its impact on digestibility, and the role of nuts in regulating appetite. We review the data from randomized controlled trials and observational studies conducted to examine the relationship between nut intake and body weight or body mass index. Consistently, the evidence from RCTs and observational cohorts indicates that higher nut consumption does not cause greater weight gain; rather, nuts may be beneficial for weight control and prevention of long-term weight gain. Multiple mechanisms likely contribute to these findings, including aspects of nut composition which affect nutrient and energy availability as well as satiety signaling.

Eating behaviour traits mediate the association between satiety responsiveness and energy intake among individuals with overweight and obesity

Whether eating behaviour traits represent factors that could explain the susceptibility to overeating in individuals with low satiety responsiveness remain to be extensively examined. This study aimed to assess if eating behaviours mediate the association between satiety responsiveness and energy intake. Baseline data from individuals with overweight or obesity (n = 303; age = 38.7 ± 8.4 years; BMI = 33.2 ± 3.4 kg/m², 56% women) who participated in four weight-loss studies were included in this cross-sectional study. Satiety responsiveness was determined by the satiety quotient (SQ) based on fullness sensations in response to a standardized breakfast. Energy intake was self-reported in a three-day food record and measured by an ad libitum buffet meal. Eating behaviours were assessed with questionnaires. Mediation analyses adjusted for age and sex, and for underreporting for the food record, were performed using a regression-based and bootstrapping approach. The association between SQ and self-reported total energy intake was mediated by susceptibility to hunger (β = -2.51 ± 1.26, 95% CI, -5.38 to -0.52) and its subscales, internal and external locus of hunger (β = -2.00 ± 1.10, 95% CI, -4.50 to -0.28 and β = -2.42 ± 1.29, 95% CI, -5.30 to -0.30, respectively). Susceptibility to hunger (β = -2.71 ± 1.13, 95% CI, -5.29 to -0.84), internal and external locus of hunger (β = -1.84 ± 0.95, 95% CI -4.00 to -0.30 and β = -3.42 ± 1.31, 95% CI, -6.39 to -1.24, respectively), cues that may trigger food cravings (β = -5.43 ± 2.91, 95% CI, -11.83 to -0.44) and state-craving as a physiological state (β = -4.31 ± 2.51, 95%CI, -10.14 to -0.44) also mediated the association between SQ and measured energy intake. These results suggest that susceptibility to hunger and food cravings partly explained the susceptibility to overeating among individuals with low satiety responsiveness. Interventions targeting susceptibility to hunger and food cravings may thus be helpful to prevent overeating among these individuals.

Do eating behavior traits predict energy intake and body mass index? A systematic review and meta-analysis

At present, it is unclear whether eating behavior traits (EBT) predict objectively measured short-term energy intake (EI) and longer-term energy balance as estimated by body mass index (BMI). This systematic review examined the impact of EBT on BMI and laboratory-based measures of EI in adults ( ≥ 18 years) in any BMI category, excluding self-report measures of EI. Articles were searched up until 28th October 2021 using MEDLINE, PsycINFO, EMBASE and Web of Science. Sixteen EBT were identified and the association between 10 EBT, EI and BMI were assessed using a random-effects meta-analysis. Other EBT outcomes were synthesized qualitatively. Risk of bias was assessed with the mixed methods appraisal tool. A total of 83 studies were included (mean BMI = 25.20 kg/m² , mean age = 27 years and mean sample size = 70). Study quality was rated moderately high overall, with some concerns in sampling strategy and statistical analyses. Susceptibility to hunger (n = 6) and binge eating (n = 7) were the strongest predictors of EI. Disinhibition (n = 8) was the strongest predictor of BMI. Overall, EBT may be useful as phenotypic markers of susceptibility to overconsume or develop obesity (PROSPERO: CRD42021288694).

Food Addiction and Emotional Eating Behaviors Co-Occurring with Problematic Smartphone Use in Adolescents?

Addiction in adolescence is increasing and has a significant impact on physical and mental health. Notably, addictions can be comorbid and affect each other. Despite the recent growing interest in food addiction (FA) and problematic smartphone use (PSU), few studies have investigated their association in adolescents. We investigated the relationship between FA and PSU in adolescents and the effects of eating behaviors. A total of 209 adolescents (44.5% male; mean age = 12.86 ± 0.7 years) participated in the current school-based community study. We found a positive correlation between the dimensional Yale Food Addiction Scale for Children 2.0 (dYFAS-C2.0) and the Smartphone Overdependence Scale after adjusting for age, sex, body mass index, and socioeconomic status. The high-risk PSU group accounted for 17.2% of participants. Furthermore, this group showed 2.3 times higher dYFAS-C2.0 scores than the general group. Emotional overeating and satiety responsiveness were correlated with PSU. A comprehensive evaluation of addiction symptoms is needed for proper intervention, especially in adolescents with symptoms of abnormal eating behaviors.

Validation of the Adult Eating Behaviour Questionnaire adapted for the French-speaking Canadian population

PURPOSE

The Adult Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (AEBQ) is a newly developed questionnaire adapted from the widely used Child Eating Behaviour Questionnaire. This questionnaire assesses four food approach scales, namely hunger, food responsiveness, emotional overeating (EOE) and enjoyment of food, and four food avoidance scales, namely satiety responsiveness (SR), emotional undereating (EUE), food fussiness and slowness in eating (SE). This study aimed to validate a French version of the AEBQ in controlled conditions among French-speaking adults from Quebec, Canada.

METHODS

The AEBQ was pre-tested through structured interviews with 30 individuals. Participants of the validation study (n = 197, aged 19-65 years) had their height and weight measured and completed the AEBQ, Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ) and Intuitive Eating Scale-2 to assess factorial structure, internal consistency and construct validity. Test-retest reliability over 2 weeks was assessed among 144 participants.

RESULTS

Confirmatory factor analysis indicated an excellent model fit (NNFI = 0.98, CFI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.03, χ²/df = 1.17) and provided support for the use of the original 8-factor questionnaire. Internal consistency was adequate for most scales (Cronbach's alpha = 0.66-0.94) and moderate to excellent test-retest reliability was observed for all scales (ICC = 0.70-90). Women showed higher levels of EOE and SR, and individuals with overweight and obesity showed higher levels of EOE and lower levels of EUE and SE. Construct validity was also supported by expected correlations with disinhibition and susceptibility to hunger from the TFEQ and intuitive eating.

CONCLUSION

This study indicates that the French AEBQ is a valid and reliable tool to measure eating behaviours in the adult population of Quebec.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III: Evidence obtained from well-designed cohort or case-control analytic studies. The data are cross-sectional, but all measurement were undertaken in controlled laboratory conditions and the study provided new information.

Predictors of Post-Exercise Energy Intake in Adolescents Ranging in Weight Status from Overweight to Severe Obesity

Exercise may sensitize individuals with overweight and obesity to appetitive signals (e.g., hunger and fullness cues), overriding trait eating behaviors that contribute to overeating and obesity, such as uncontrolled eating. The objective of the current study was to measure predictors of objective ad libitum energy intake at a laboratory-based, post-exercise test-meal in adolescents ranging in weight status from overweight to severe obesity. We hypothesized that appetitive states, rather than appetitive traits, would be the strongest predictors of energy intake at a post-exercise test-meal, after controlling for body size. At Baseline, 30 adolescents (ages 10-16 years, 50% female (F), 43% non-Hispanic white (NHW), 83% with obesity (OB)) completed state and trait appetite measures and an ad libitum dinner meal following intensive exercise. Nineteen of those participants (47% F, 32% NHW, 79% OB) completed identical assessments two years later (Year 2). Energy intake (kcal) at each time point was adjusted for fat-free mass index (i.e., body size). Adjusted energy intake was reliable from Baseline to Year 2 (ICC = 0.84). Multiple pre-meal appetite ratings were associated with test-meal energy intake. In stepwise linear regression models, pre-meal prospective food consumption was the strongest and only significant predictor of test-meal energy intake at both Baseline (R2 = 0.25, p = 0.005) and Year 2 (R2 = 0.41, p = 0.003). Baseline post-exercise energy intake was associated with weight change over two years (R2 = 0.24, p = 0.04), but not with change in fat mass (p = 0.11). Appetitive traits were not associated with weight or body composition change (p > 0.22). State appetite cues were the strongest predictors of post-exercise energy intake, independent of body size. Future studies should examine whether long-term exercise programs enhance responsiveness to homeostatic appetite signals in youth with overweight and obesity, with a goal to reduce excess energy intake and risk for weight gain over time.

Individual differences in sensory and expectation driven interoceptive processes: a novel paradigm with implications for alexithymia, disordered eating and obesity

Those with disordered eating and/or obesity often express difficulties in sensing or interpreting what is happening in the body (interoception). However, research is hindered by conceptual confusion, concerns surrounding domain specificity, and an inability to distinguish sensory (bottom-up) and expectation driven (top-down) interoceptive processes. A paradigm was therefore developed from an active inference perspective. Novel indices were computed and examined in those with alexithymia: a personality associated with interoceptive deficits and disordered eating. The paradigm successfully identified individuals driven by sensations rather than expectations: alexithymia was characterized by attenuated prior precision (a larger divergence between pre-prandial and post-prandial satiety, and low expectation confidence), and increased prediction error (a higher correlation between changes in hunger and blood glucose, and greater rebound hunger after a sensory incongruent drink). In addition, those with a higher BMI were less confident and had a larger anticipated satiety divergence. These findings demonstrate the need to move beyond existing paradigms such as the Satiety Quotient and Heartbeat Counting Task which may have limited our understanding of eating behaviour.

Circulating Metabolites Associated with Postprandial Satiety in Overweight/Obese Participants: The SATIN Study

Scope: To identify a metabolomic profile related to postprandial satiety sensations involved in appetite control would help for a better understanding of the regulation of food intake. Methods and Results: A cross-sectional analysis of plasma metabolites was conducted over 151 overweight/obese adults from the “Satiety Innovation”-SATIN study, a randomized clinical trial of a 12-week weight-loss maintenance period. Postprandial satiety sensations (3 h-iAUC) were assessed by visual analogue scale (VAS) at the beginning and at the end of the study. Fasting plasma metabolites were profiled using a targeted multiplatform metabolomics approach before each appetite test meal. Associations between 124 metabolites and iAUC-satiety were assessed using elastic net linear regression analyses. The accuracy of the multimetabolite weighted models for iAUC-VAS was evaluated using a 10-fold cross-validation (CV) approach and the Pearson’s correlation coefficients were estimated. Five and three metabolites were selected in the first and the second assessments, respectively. Circulating glycine and linoleic acid concentrations were consistently and positively associated with higher iAUC-satiety in both visits. Sucrose and sphingomyelins (C32:2, C38:1) were negatively associated with iAUC-satiety in the first visit. The Pearson correlations coefficients between the metabolomic profiles and iAUC-satiety in the first and the second appetite assessments were 0.37 and 0.27, respectively. Conclusion: Higher glycine and linoleic acid were moderately but consistently associated with higher postprandial satiety in two different appetite assessments in overweight and obese subjects.

Symposium 'understanding and managing satiety: processes and opportunities'

This brief report summarises a framework for understanding satiety presented at the 13th European Nutrition Conference, FENS 2019 – Malnutrition in an Obese World: European Perspectives. Aspects of satiety phenotyping and role of food hedonics in satiation are considered in the context of appetite control and obesity. Almonds are evaluated for their unique composition and structure which affect their behaviour in the human gastrointestinal tract. Their role in appetite control and management of satiety has been explored.

A systematic review of the use of the Satiety Quotient

The satiating efficiency of food has been increasingly quantified using the Satiety Quotient (SQ). The SQ integrates both the energy content of food ingested during a meal and the associated change in appetite sensations. This systematic review examines the available evidence regarding its methodological use and clinical utility. A literature search was conducted in six databases considering studies from 1900 to April 2020 that used SQ in adults, adolescents and children. All study designs were included. From the initial 495 references found, fifty-two were included. Of the studies included, thirty-three were acute studies (twenty-nine in adults and four in adolescents) and nineteen were longitudinal studies in adults. A high methodological heterogeneity in the application of the SQ was observed between studies. Five main utilisations of the SQ were identified: its association with (i) energy intake; (ii) anthropometric variables; (iii) energy expenditure/physical activity; (iv) sleep quality and quantity and (v) to classify individuals by their satiety responsiveness (i.e. low and high satiety phenotypes). Altogether, the studies suggest the SQ as an interesting clinical tool regarding the satiety responsiveness to a meal and its changes in responses to weight loss in adults. The SQ might be a reliable clinical indicator in adults when it comes to both obesity prevention and treatment. There is a need for more standardised use of the SQ in addition to further studies to investigate its validity in different contexts and populations, especially among children and adolescents.

Appetitive traits as targets for weight loss: The role of food cue responsiveness and satiety responsiveness

Individuals with overweight or obesity (OW/OB) are at increased risk for significant physical and psychological comorbidities. The current treatment for OW/OB is behavioral weight loss, which provides psychoeducation on nutrition and physical activity, as well as behavior therapy skills. However, behavioral weight loss is not effective for the majority of the individuals who participate. Research suggests that overeating, or eating past nutritional needs, is one of the leading causes of weight gain. Accumulating evidence suggests that appetitive traits, such as food cue responsiveness and satiety responsiveness, are associated with overeating and weight in youth and adults. The following review presents the current literature on the relationship between food cue responsiveness, satiety responsiveness, overeating, and OW/OB. Research suggests that higher food cue responsiveness and lower satiety responsiveness are associated with overeating and OW/OB cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Emerging data suggest that food cue responsiveness and satiety responsiveness may exist along the same continuum and can be targeted to manage overeating and reduce weight. We have developed a treatment model targeting food cue responsiveness and satiety responsiveness to reduce overeating and weight and have preliminary feasibility, acceptability, and efficacy data, with testing currently being conducted in larger trials. Through programs targeting appetitive traits we hope to develop an alternative weight loss model to assist individuals with a propensity to overeat.

Translating hunger training research to primary health: a qualitative study of nurse attitudes towards a novel weight management intervention

INTRODUCTION Practice nurses in general practice are ideally placed to deliver weight management treatments. Teaching people to eat according to their appetite, based on measurements of blood glucose ('hunger training'), is known to lead to weight loss and improved eating behaviour. To effectively translate this research to primary care requires understanding of key stakeholder perspectives. AIM The aim of this study was to explore the perspectives of practice nurses on the suitability of using hunger training as a weight management intervention in general practice. METHODS Ten nurses trialled hunger training for 1 week, followed by a semi-structured interview where they were asked about their experience; perceived patient interest; enablers and barriers; and suggested changes to hunger training. RESULTS All nurses were positive about hunger training and wanted to use it with their patients. They thought it was a useful method for teaching patients about eating according to their appetite, and the impact of food choices on glucose. Motivation was seen to be both an important potential barrier and enabler for patients. Other anticipated patient enablers included the educational value of hunger training and ease of the programme. Other barriers included lack of time and cost of equipment and appointments. For most nurses, 1 week of following hunger training was sufficient training to deliver the intervention. Suggested refinements included adding nutrition advice to the booklet, incorporating other health goals and enabling social support. DISCUSSION These findings suggest that hunger training could be translated to primary care with minor modifications.

Biomarkers of appetite: is there a potential role for metabolomics?

Knowing the biological signals associated with appetite control is crucial for understanding the regulation of food intake. Biomarkers of appetite have been defined as physiological measures that relate to subjective appetite ratings, measured food intake, or both. Several metabolites including amino acids, lipids and glucose were proposed as key molecules associated with appetite control over 60 years ago, and along with bile acids are all among possible appetite biomarker candidates. Additional metabolites that have been associated with appetite include endocannabinoids, lactate, cortisol and β-hydroxybutyrate. However, although appetite is a complex integrative process, studies often investigated a limited number of markers in isolation. Metabolomics involves the study of small molecules or metabolites present in biological samples such as urine or blood, and may present a powerful approach to further the understanding of appetite control. Using multiple analytical techniques allows the characterisation of molecules, such as carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids, bile acids and fatty acids. Metabolomics has proven successful in identifying markers of consumption of certain foods and biomarkers implicated in several diseases. However, it has been underexploited in appetite control or obesity. The aim of the present narrative review is to: (1) provide an overview of existing metabolites that have been identified in human biofluids and associated with appetite control; and (2) discuss the potential of metabolomics to deepen understanding of appetite control in humans.

Evaluation of the Influence of Raw Almonds on Appetite Control: Satiation, Satiety, Hedonics and Consumer Perceptions

Snack foods can be substantial contributors to daily energy intake, with different types of snacks exerting potentially different effects on satiety per calorie consumed. The present research compared the effect of consuming almonds as a mid-morning snack compared to an energy and weight-matched comparator snack (savoury crackers) or the equivalent weight of water (zero energy control). In a crossover design, 42 female participants (age: 26.0 ± 7.9, BMI: 22.0 ± 2.0) consumed a fixed breakfast then a mid-morning snack. Appetite, 24-h energy intake, food hedonics, and consumer perceptions of the snack foods were assessed under laboratory conditions. AUC analyses revealed a lower overall hunger drive after consuming almonds compared to crackers or water. There was no difference in 24-h energy intake in the almond compared to the cracker or the zero-energy control condition, however participants consumed more energy in the cracker condition compared to the zero-energy control condition. In addition, almonds suppressed hedonic preference (implicit wanting) for consuming high-fat foods and demonstrated a higher satiety quotient (SQ) than crackers. Almonds were perceived to have a more favourable consumer profile aligned with successful weight management. In conclusion, these findings demonstrate that in the context of a 24-h period of objectively measured energy intake, raw almonds are effective for controlling appetite compared to an energy matched alternative snack. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov [NCT02480582].

Issues in Measuring and Interpreting Human Appetite (Satiety/Satiation) and Its Contribution to Obesity

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The goals of this paper are to report current research practices in investigations of human appetite control and to assess their relationships with emerging theoretical principles. Appetite is often distinguished by the separation of homeostatic and hedonic processes.

RECENT FINDINGS

This report assesses the validity of a homeostatic toolkit to measure subjectively perceived hunger and its relationship to the developing processes of satiation (control of meal size) and satiety (control of the post-eating period). The capacity of a procedure to measure the influence of hedonic processes on food intake is also evaluated. A major issue is the relationship between the pattern of eating behaviour (influenced by the underlying drive to eat and the inhibition induced by the act of eating itself) and the parallel underlying profile of hormonal and other metabolic biomarkers. Increasing recognition is being given to individual variability in the expression of appetite, and the fact that the use of the average (mean) response conceals important information about the nature of appetite control. There is a growing interest in the identification of satiety phenotypes that operate in parallel to metabolic phenotypes. Interestingly, energy expenditure (metabolic and behavioural) contributes to an energy balance framework for understanding energy intake (appetite).

Modelling the Association between Core and Discretionary Energy Intake in Adults with and without Obesity

BACKGROUND

Many dietary recommendations for weight control rely on the assumption that greater core food intake will displace intake of energy-dense discretionary foods and beverages. However, there is little evidence to support these assumptions. This study examined the naturalistic relationship between daily core and discretionary energy intake, and with discretionary food and discretionary beverage intake, separately. The impact of weight status on these associations was also examined.

METHOD

One hundred participants completed a four-day (non-consecutive) estimated food diary. Discretionary foods and beverages were identified by reference to the Australian Dietary Guidelines. Non-discretionary items were considered core items. Simultaneous-equation random effects models using disaggregated dietary data controlling for sociodemographic variables were used to determine the association between various dietary components.

RESULT

Core energy intake correlated negatively with discretionary energy intake (cross-equation correlation, ρ = -0.49 (95% CI: -0.57, -0.39)). Its correlation with discretionary foods (-0.47 (-0.56, -0.37)) was stronger than that with discretionary beverages (-0.19 (-0.30, -0.07)) The correlation between core energy intake and discretionary energy intake was significantly stronger in participants who did not have obesity (-0.67 (-0.71, -0.50)) than those with obesity (-0.32 (-0.46, -0.17)) (p = 0.0002).

CONCLUSIONS

Core and discretionary energy intake share an inverse and potentially bidirectional, relationship that appears to be stronger with discretionary foods than discretionary beverages. These relationships were significantly weaker in participants with obesity which may indicate less precise dietary compensation in these individuals. While strategies that promote greater intake of core foods may assist with weight maintenance in individuals of healthy weight, its impact in individuals with obesity may be limited. These strategies should be accompanied by direct messages to reduce commensurately the intake of discretionary items, with special attention paid to discretionary beverage consumption.

Effect of Energy Restriction on Eating Behavior Traits and Psychobehavioral Factors in the Low Satiety Phenotype

Studies have shown that individuals with low satiety efficiency may be more susceptible to weight gain, but little is known about the effect of weight loss intervention outcomes in these individuals. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of an energy-restricted weight loss intervention on eating behavior traits and psychobehavioral factors in individuals differing in their satiety responsiveness. A pooled cohort of individuals who were overweight or obese (n = 100; aged 39 ± 9 years) participating in a 12- to 15-week weight loss program targeting an energy deficit of 500–700 kcal/day were included in this study. Satiety responsiveness was determined by a median split of the mean satiety quotient based on appetite sensations measured in response to a test meal at baseline (low satiety responsiveness (LSR) vs. high satiety responsiveness (HSR)). Anthropometric variables, eating behavior traits, psychobehavioral factors, and ad libitum energy intake were assessed before and after the intervention. Although similar weight loss was observed between the LSR and HSR groups (−3.5 ± 3.2 vs. −3.8 ± 2.8 kg, p = 0.64) in response to an energy-restricted weight loss intervention, changes in eating behavior traits were different between groups. Individuals with LSR had a higher increase in cognitive restraint (+5.5 ± 4.1 vs. +3.5 ± 3.5, p = 0.02) and some of its subscales and a lower decrease in situational susceptibility to disinhibition (−0.6 ± 1.1 vs. −1.2 ± 1.3, p = 0.02) in response to the intervention compared to the HSR group. In conclusion, energy-restricted weight loss intervention seems to trigger undesirable changes in some eating behavior traits in individuals more vulnerable to overeating, which could increase their susceptibility to weight regain.

Impact of a non-restrictive satiating diet on anthropometrics, satiety responsiveness and eating behaviour traits in obese men displaying a high or a low satiety phenotype

The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of a non-restrictive satiating diet in men displaying various degrees of satiety efficiency. In all, sixty-nine obese men aged 41·5 (sd5·7) years were randomly assigned to a control (10–15, 55–60 and 30 % energy as protein, carbohydrate and lipid, respectively;n34) or satiating (20–25, 45–50 and 30–35 % energy as protein, carbohydrate and lipid, respectively;n35) diet for 16 weeks, and were classified as having a low (LSP) or high (HSP) satiety phenotype. Both diets were consumedad libitum. Changes in body weight, BMI, percent fat mass, waist circumference, satiety responsiveness and eating behaviour traits were assessed following the intervention. Dropout rates were higher in the control diet (44·1 %) compared with the satiating diet (8·6 %). Decreases in body weight, BMI and waist circumference were significant in both groups, yet HSP individuals lost more body weight than LSP individuals (P=0·048). Decreases in % fat mass were greater in the satiating diet (LSP: −2·1 (sd2·1) %;P<0·01 and HSP: −3·0 (sd2·5) %;P<0·001) compared with the control diet (LSP: −1·1 (sd2·5) % and HSP: −1·3 (sd2·6) %) (P=0·034). Satiety responsiveness was markedly improved in the satiating diet, whereas no significant changes were observed in the control group. Changes in dietary restraint (+3·3 (sd2·9) to +7·2 (sd5·5)), flexible control (+0·9 (sd1·4) to +2·3 (sd2·7)), rigid control (+2·2 (sd1·5) to +2·5 (sd2·8)), disinhibition (−2·8 (sd3·7) to −3·2 (sd2·6)) and susceptibility to hunger (−2·7 (sd4·1) to −4·6 (sd3·9)) were similar between the diets. Compared with the control diet, the satiating diet favoured adherence, decreased % fat mass and improved satiety responsiveness in both HSP and LSP individuals.

Mechanisms responsible for homeostatic appetite control: theoretical advances and practical implications

Homeostatic appetite control is part of a psychobiological system that has evolved to maintain an adequate supply of nutrients for growth and maintenance. The system links the physiological needs for energy with the behaviour that satisfies these needs (feeding), and is shaped by excitatory and inhibitory signals. Owing to rapid shifts in the food environment, homeostatic appetite control is not well adapted for modern-day human functioning. Areas covered: Homeostatic appetite control has two divisions. Tonic processes exert stable and enduring influences, with signals arising from bodily tissues and metabolism. Episodic processes fluctuate rapidly and are related to nutrient ingestion and the composition of foods consumed. Research in these areas incorporates potent endocrine signals that can influence behaviour. Expert commentary: The regulation of adipose tissue, and its impact on appetite (energy) homeostasis, has been heavily researched. More recently however, it has been demonstrated that fat-free mass has the potential to act as a tonic driver of food intake. A challenging issue is to determine how the post-prandial action of episodic satiety hormones and gastrointestinal mechanisms can effectively brake the metabolic drive to eat, in order to keep food intake under control and prevent a positive energy balance and fat accumulation.

Cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between different exercise types and food cravings in free-living healthy young adults

INTRODUCTION

An increase in energy intake due to alterations in hedonic appetite sensations may, at least in part, contribute to lower-than-expected weight loss in exercise interventions. The aim of this study was to examine cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between habitual exercise participation and food cravings in free-living young adults.

METHODS

A total of 417 adults (49% male, 28 ± 4 years) reported frequency and duration of walking, aerobic exercise, resistance exercise and other exercise at baseline and every 3 months over a 12-month period. Food cravings were assessed via the Control of Eating Questionnaire at baseline and 12-month follow-up.

RESULTS

Cross-sectional analyses revealed more frequent cravings for chocolate and a greater difficulty to resist food cravings in women compared to men (p < 0.01). Only with resistance exercise significant sex by exercise interaction effects were observed with favorable responses in men but not in women. Significant main effects were shown for walking and aerobic exercise with exercisers reporting more frequent food cravings for chocolate and fruits and greater difficulty to resist eating compared to non-exercisers (p < 0.05). Longitudinal analyses revealed significant interaction effects for other exercise (p < 0.05) with favorable results in men but not women. Furthermore, significant main effects were observed for aerobic exercise, resistance exercise and total exercise with an increase in exercise being associated with a reduced difficulty to resist food cravings (p < 0.05).

DISCUSSION

The association between exercise participation and hedonic appetite sensations varies by exercise type and sex. Even though exercise was associated with more frequent and greater difficulty to food cravings in the cross-sectional analyses, which may be attributed to greater energy demands, longitudinal results indicate beneficial effects of increased exercise on appetite control, particularly in men.

Food Choice and Nutrition: A Social Psychological Perspective

In this Special Issue, entitled "Food choice and Nutrition: A Social Psychological Perspective", three broad themes have been identified: (1) social and environmental influences on food choice; (2) psychological influences on eating behaviour; and (3) eating behaviour profiling.The studies that addressed the social and environmental influences indicated that further research would do well to promote positive food choices rather than reduce negative food choices; promote the reading and interpretation of food labels and find ways to effectively market healthy food choices through accessibility, availability and presentation. The studies on psychological influences found that intentions, perceived behavioural control, and confidence were predictors of healthy eating. Given the importance of psychological factors, such as perceived behavioural control and self-efficacy, healthy eating interventions should reduce barriers to healthy eating and foster perceptions of confidence to consume a healthy diet. The final theme focused on the clustering of individuals according to eating behaviour. Some "types" of individuals reported more frequent consumption of fast foods, ready meals or convenience meals or greater levels of disinhibitiona nd less control over food cravings. Intervention designs which make use of multi-level strategies as advocated by the Ecological Model of Behaviour change that proposes multi-level (combining psychological, social and environmental) strategies are likely to be more effective in reaching and engaging individuals susceptible to unhealthy eating habits than interventions operating on a single level.