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Kciuk M, Alam M, Ali N, Rashid S, Głowacka P, Sundaraj R, Celik I, Yahya EB, Dubey A, Zerroug E, Kontek R. Epigallocatechin-3-Gallate Therapeutic Potential in Cancer: Mechanism of Action and Clinical Implications. Molecules 2023; 28:5246. [PMID: 37446908 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28135246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Revised: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/03/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Cellular signaling pathways involved in the maintenance of the equilibrium between cell proliferation and apoptosis have emerged as rational targets that can be exploited in the prevention and treatment of cancer. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) is the most abundant phenolic compound found in green tea. It has been shown to regulate multiple crucial cellular signaling pathways, including those mediated by EGFR, JAK-STAT, MAPKs, NF-κB, PI3K-AKT-mTOR, and others. Deregulation of the abovementioned pathways is involved in the pathophysiology of cancer. It has been demonstrated that EGCG may exert anti-proliferative, anti-inflammatory, and apoptosis-inducing effects or induce epigenetic changes. Furthermore, preclinical and clinical studies suggest that EGCG may be used in the treatment of numerous disorders, including cancer. This review aims to summarize the existing knowledge regarding the biological properties of EGCG, especially in the context of cancer treatment and prophylaxis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mateusz Kciuk
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Genetics, University of Lodz, Banacha Street 12/16, 90-237 Lodz, Poland
- Doctoral School of Exact and Natural Sciences, University of Lodz, Banacha Street 12/16, 90-237 Lodz, Poland
| | - Manzar Alam
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Basic Sciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi 110025, India
| | - Nemat Ali
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Summya Rashid
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 173, Al-Kharj 11942, Saudi Arabia
| | - Pola Głowacka
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Medical University of Lodz, Mazowiecka 6/8, 90-001 Lodz, Poland
- Doctoral School of Medical University of Lodz, Hallera 1 Square, 90-700 Lodz, Poland
| | - Rajamanikandan Sundaraj
- Department of Biochemistry, Centre for Drug Discovery, Karpagam Academy of Higher Education, Coimbatore 641021, India
| | - Ismail Celik
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Erciyes University, Kayseri 38280, Turkey
| | - Esam Bashir Yahya
- Bioprocess Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia
| | - Amit Dubey
- Computational Chemistry and Drug Discovery Division, Quanta Calculus, Greater Noida 201310, India
- Department of Pharmacology, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Saveetha Dental College and Hospital, Chennai 600077, India
| | - Enfale Zerroug
- LMCE Laboratory, Group of Computational and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Biskra, Biskra 07000, Algeria
| | - Renata Kontek
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Genetics, University of Lodz, Banacha Street 12/16, 90-237 Lodz, Poland
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Kumar NB, Hogue S, Pow-Sang J, Poch M, Manley BJ, Li R, Dhillon J, Yu A, Byrd DA. Effects of Green Tea Catechins on Prostate Cancer Chemoprevention: The Role of the Gut Microbiome. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:3988. [PMID: 36010981 PMCID: PMC9406482 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14163988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Accumulating evidence supports green tea catechins (GTCs) in chemoprevention for prostate cancer (PCa), a leading cause of cancer morbidity and mortality among men. GTCs include (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate, which may modulate the molecular pathways implicated in prostate carcinogenesis. Prior studies of GTCs suggested that they are bioavailable, safe, and effective for modulating clinical and biological markers implicated in prostate carcinogenesis. GTCs may be of particular benefit to those with low-grade PCas typically managed with careful monitoring via active surveillance (AS). Though AS is recommended, it has limitations including potential under-grading, variations in eligibility, and anxiety reported by men while on AS. Secondary chemoprevention of low-grade PCas using GTCs may help address these limitations. When administrated orally, the gut microbiome enzymatically transforms GTC structure, altering its bioavailability, bioactivity, and toxicity. In addition to xenobiotic metabolism, the gut microbiome has multiple other physiological effects potentially involved in PCa progression, including regulating inflammation, hormones, and other known/unknown pathways. Therefore, it is important to consider not only the independent roles of GTCs and the gut microbiome in the context of PCa chemoprevention, but how gut microbes may relate to individual responses to GTCs, which, in turn, can enhance clinical decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nagi B. Kumar
- Cancer Epidemiology Program, Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
- Genitourinary Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Stephanie Hogue
- Cancer Epidemiology Program, Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Julio Pow-Sang
- Genitourinary Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Michael Poch
- Genitourinary Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Brandon J. Manley
- Genitourinary Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Roger Li
- Genitourinary Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Jasreman Dhillon
- Anatomic Pathology, Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Alice Yu
- Genitourinary Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
| | - Doratha A. Byrd
- Cancer Epidemiology Program, Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
- Gastrointestinal Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL 33612, USA
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Farabegoli F, Pinheiro M. Epigallocatechin-3-Gallate Delivery in Lipid-Based Nanoparticles: Potentiality and Perspectives for Future Applications in Cancer Chemoprevention and Therapy. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:809706. [PMID: 35496283 PMCID: PMC9046542 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.809706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemoprevention is a strategy aimed to not only reduce the risk but also delay the development or recurrence of cancer. An ideal chemopreventive agent is not dangerous and ought not to result in side effects or damage to human health. In this context, epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) is considered a suitable chemopreventive agent, but its clinical use is limited by many factors, namely, the difference in source, administration, individual metabolism, absorption, and distribution. Genetic and dietary differences greatly cause this variability, which has limited the rational use of EGCG in chemoprevention and, particularly, the definition of a safe and efficient concentration. In the present mini review, the main limitations to a complete understanding of the use of EGCG as a chemopreventive agent will be briefly illustrated. This review also indicates the introduction and trialing of lipid-based nanoparticles (NPs) as a proper strategy to deliver EGCG at a well-defined concentration for better investigation of the chemopreventive activity. Finally, some examples of cancers that might benefit from EGCG treatment in different stages of the disease are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fulvia Farabegoli
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology (FABIT), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- *Correspondence: Fulvia Farabegoli,
| | - Marina Pinheiro
- LAQV, Rede de Química e Tecnologia (REQUIMTE), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
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McCarty MF. The Japanese Experience Suggests that Lethal Prostate Cancer is Almost Wholly Preventable with a Quasi-Vegan Diet, Soy Products, and Green Tea. Med Hypotheses 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2022.110839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Ohishi T, Hayakawa S, Miyoshi N. Involvement of microRNA modifications in anticancer effects of major polyphenols from green tea, coffee, wine, and curry. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2022; 63:7148-7179. [PMID: 35289676 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2038540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Epidemiological studies have shown that consumption of green tea, coffee, wine, and curry may contribute to a reduced risk of various cancers. However, there are some cancer site-specific differences in their effects; for example, the consumption of tea or wine may reduce bladder cancer risk, whereas coffee consumption may increase the risk. Animal and cell-based experiments have been used to elucidate the anticancer mechanisms of these compounds, with reactive oxygen species (ROS)-based mechanisms emerging as likely candidates. Chlorogenic acid (CGA), curcumin (CUR), epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), and resveratrol (RSV) can act as antioxidants that activate AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) to downregulate ROS, and as prooxidants to generate ROS, leading to the downregulation of NF-κB. Polyphenols can modulate miRNA (miR) expression, with these dietary polyphenols shown to downregulate tumor-promoting miR-21. CUR, EGCG, and RSV can upregulate tumor-suppressing miR-16, 34a, 145, and 200c, but downregulate tumor-promoting miR-25a. CGA, EGCG, and RSV downregulate tumor-suppressing miR-20a, 93, and 106b. The effects of miRs may combine with ROS-mediated pathways, enhancing the anticancer effects of these polyphenols. More precise analysis is needed to determine how the different modulations of miRs by polyphenols relate to the cancer site-specific differences found in epidemiological studies related to the consumption of foods containing these polyphenols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomokazu Ohishi
- Institute of Microbial Chemistry (BIKAKEN), Numazu, Microbial Chemistry Research Foundation, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Sumio Hayakawa
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Miyoshi
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Graduate School of Nutritional and Environmental Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka, Japan
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Cai T, Cocci A, Di Maida F, Chiodini S, Ciarleglio F, Luciani LG, Pedrotti G, Palmieri A, Malossini G, Rizzo M, Liguori G, Bjerklund Johansen TE. Visceral adiposity is associated with worse urinary and sexual function recovery after radical prostatectomy: Results from a longitudinal cohort study. Arch Ital Urol Androl 2021; 93:285-290. [PMID: 34839633 DOI: 10.4081/aiua.2021.3.285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE A prospective longitudinal cohort study on the impact of anthropometric measures on the sexual function and continence recovery in patients treated with laparoscopic radical prostatectomy (LRP) is presented. MATERIAL AND METHODS Anthropometric measures, International Index of Erectile Function (IIEF-5) and International Prostatic Symptoms Score questionnaires, were collected before surgery and at the end of follow-up period. All patients were assigned into the following groups: A) non-obese; B) non-obese with central adiposity; C) obese without central adiposity; D) obese with central adiposity. Urinary and sexual functions were the outcome measures. RESULTS At the end of follow-up, in 29 patients with visceral adiposity (VA) the median IIEF-5 was 14 (IQR 7-18) while in 49 non-VA patients (62.8%) was 22 (IQR 17-24) (p < 0.001). Twenty-three patients (79.3%) with VA reported complete continence, while 6 (20.7%) used ≥ 2 pads per day. Forty-eight patients (97.9%) without VA reported complete continence. VA was confirmed as a strong independent predictor for worse continence (HR 3.67; 2.75-4.51 CI95% p = 0.003) and sexual function recovery (HR: 4.51; 3.09-5.63 CI95% p < 0.001). CONCLUSION We truly believe obese with visceral adiposity patients with prostate cancer should receive detailed preoperative counseling before surgery, including higher risk of suboptimal functional outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tommaso Cai
- Department of Urology, Santa Chiara Regional Hospital, Trento, Italy; Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo.
| | - Andrea Cocci
- Department of Urology, University of Florence, Florence.
| | | | | | | | | | - Giovanni Pedrotti
- Department of Anesthesiology, Santa Maria del Carmine Hospital, Rovereto.
| | | | | | - Michele Rizzo
- Department of Urology, University of Trieste, Trieste.
| | | | - Truls E Bjerklund Johansen
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Department of Urology, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Aarhus.
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Suganuma M, Rawangkan A, Wongsirisin P, Kobayashi N, Matsuzaki T, Yoshikawa HY, Watanabe T. Stiffening of Cancer Cell Membranes Is a Key Biophysical Mechanism of Primary and Tertiary Cancer Prevention with Green Tea Polyphenols. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 2021; 68:1123-1130. [PMID: 33268644 DOI: 10.1248/cpb.c20-00300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Over the past 30 years, research of green tea polyphenols, especially (-)-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), has revealed that consumption of green tea is a practical and effective primary cancer prevention method for the general population. More recently, we believe that green tea polyphenols are beneficial for tertiary cancer prevention using green tea alone or combined with anticancer drugs because EGCG has the potential to inhibit metastatic progression and stemness, and enhance antitumor immunity. In an effort to identify a common underlying mechanism responsible for EGCG's multifunctional effects on various molecular targets, we studied the biophysical effects of EGCG on cell stiffness using atomic force microscopy. We found that EGCG acts to stiffen the membranes of cancer cells, leading to inhibition of signaling pathways of various receptors. Stiffening of membranes with EGCG inhibited AXL receptor tyrosine kinase, a stimulator of cell softening, motility and stemness, and expression of programmed cell death-ligand 1. This review covers the following: i) primary cancer prevention using EGCG or green tea, ii) tertiary cancer prevention by combining EGCG and anticancer drugs, iii) inhibition of metastasis with EGCG by stiffening the cell membrane, iv) inhibition of AXL receptor tyrosine kinase, a stimulator of cell softening and motility, with EGCG, v) inhibition of stemness properties with EGCG, and vi) EGCG as an alternative chemical immune checkpoint inhibitor. Development of new drugs that enhance stiffening of cancer cell membranes may be an effective strategy for tertiary cancer prevention and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masami Suganuma
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University.,Research Institute for Clinical Oncology, Saitama Cancer Center
| | - Anchalee Rawangkan
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University.,Research Institute for Clinical Oncology, Saitama Cancer Center
| | - Pattama Wongsirisin
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University.,Research Institute for Clinical Oncology, Saitama Cancer Center
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Ferrari E, Naponelli V, Bettuzzi S. Lemur Tyrosine Kinases and Prostate Cancer: A Literature Review. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22115453. [PMID: 34064250 PMCID: PMC8196904 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22115453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The members of the Lemur Tyrosine Kinases (LMTK1-3) subfamily constitute a group of three membrane-anchored kinases. They are known to influence a wide variety of key cellular events, often affecting cell proliferation and apoptosis. They have been discovered to be involved in cancer, in that they impact various signalling pathways that influence cell proliferation, migration, and invasiveness. Notably, in the context of genome-wide association studies, one member of the LMTK family has been identified as a candidate gene which could contribute to the development of prostate cancer. In this review, of published literature, we present evidence on the role of LMTKs in human prostate cancer and model systems, focusing on the complex network of interacting partners involved in signalling cascades that are frequently activated in prostate cancer malignancy. We speculate that the modulators of LMTK enzyme expression and activity would be of high clinical relevance for the design of innovative prostate cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Ferrari
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Via Gramsci, 14, 43126 Parma, Italy; (V.N.); (S.B.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-0521-033-822
| | - Valeria Naponelli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Via Gramsci, 14, 43126 Parma, Italy; (V.N.); (S.B.)
- National Institute of Biostructure and Biosystems (INBB), Viale Medaglie d’Oro 305, 00136 Rome, Italy
- Centre for Molecular and Translational Oncology (COMT), University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 11/a, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Saverio Bettuzzi
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Via Gramsci, 14, 43126 Parma, Italy; (V.N.); (S.B.)
- National Institute of Biostructure and Biosystems (INBB), Viale Medaglie d’Oro 305, 00136 Rome, Italy
- Centre for Molecular and Translational Oncology (COMT), University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 11/a, 43124 Parma, Italy
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Dos Santos AN, de L Nascimento TR, Gondim BLC, Velo MMAC, de A Rêgo RI, do C Neto JR, Machado JR, da Silva MV, de Araújo HWC, Fonseca MG, Castellano LRC. Catechins as Model Bioactive Compounds for Biomedical Applications. Curr Pharm Des 2021; 26:4032-4047. [PMID: 32493187 DOI: 10.2174/1381612826666200603124418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Research regarding polyphenols has gained prominence over the years because of their potential as pharmacological nutrients. Most polyphenols are flavanols, commonly known as catechins, which are present in high amounts in green tea. Catechins are promising candidates in the field of biomedicine. The health benefits of catechins, notably their antioxidant effects, are related to their chemical structure and the total number of hydroxyl groups. In addition, catechins possess strong activities against several pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi. One major limitation of these compounds is low bioavailability. Catechins are poorly absorbed by intestinal barriers. Some protective mechanisms may be required to maintain or even increase the stability and bioavailability of these molecules within living organisms. Moreover, novel delivery systems, such as scaffolds, fibers, sponges, and capsules, have been proposed. This review focuses on the unique structures and bioactive properties of catechins and their role in inflammatory responses as well as provides a perspective on their use in future human health applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana N Dos Santos
- Human Immunology Research and Education Group (GEPIH), Technical School of Health, Federal University of Paraiba, Joao Pessoa, PB, Brazil
| | - Tatiana R de L Nascimento
- Human Immunology Research and Education Group (GEPIH), Technical School of Health, Federal University of Paraiba, Joao Pessoa, PB, Brazil
| | - Brenna L C Gondim
- Post-Graduation Program in Dentistry, Department of Dentistry, State University of Paraiba, Campina Grande, PB, Brazil
| | - Marilia M A C Velo
- Department of Operative Dentistry, Endodontics and Dental Materials, Bauru School of Dentistry, University of São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Renaly I de A Rêgo
- Post-Graduation Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, State University of Paraiba, Campina Grande, PB, Brazil
| | - José R do C Neto
- Post-Graduation Program in Tropical Medicine and Public Health, Institute of Tropical Pathology and Public Health, Federal University of Goias, Goiania, GO, Brazil
| | - Juliana R Machado
- Post-Graduation Program in Tropical Medicine and Public Health, Institute of Tropical Pathology and Public Health, Federal University of Goias, Goiania, GO, Brazil
| | - Marcos V da Silva
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Federal University of Triângulo Mineiro, Uberaba, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Helvia W C de Araújo
- Department of Chemistry, State University of Paraíba, Campina Grande, PB, Brazil
| | - Maria G Fonseca
- Research Center for Fuels and Materials (NPE - LACOM), Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Paraiba, Joao Pessoa, PB, Brazil
| | - Lúcio R C Castellano
- Human Immunology Research and Education Group (GEPIH), Technical School of Health, Federal University of Paraiba, Joao Pessoa, PB, Brazil
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Gadkari K, Kolhatkar U, Hemani R, Campanelli G, Cai Q, Kumar A, Levenson AS. Therapeutic Potential of Gnetin C in Prostate Cancer: A Pre-Clinical Study. Nutrients 2020; 12:E3631. [PMID: 33255879 DOI: 10.3390/nu12123631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural stilbenes have gained significant attention in the scientific community owing to their potential anticancer effects against prostate cancer. We recently reported that Gnetin C, a resveratrol (Res) dimer, demonstrated more potent inhibition of metastasis-associated protein 1/v-ets avian erythroblastosis virus E26 oncogene homolog 2 (MTA1/ETS2) axis in prostate cancer cell lines than other stilbenes. In this study, we investigated in vivo antitumor effects of Gnetin C in two doses (50 and 25 mg/kg, i.p.) using PC3M-Luc subcutaneous xenografts and compared these to Res and pterostilbene (Pter). We found that while vehicle-treated mice revealed rapid tumor progression, compounds-treated mice showed noticeable delay in tumor growth. Gnetin C in 50 mg/kg dose demonstrated the most potent tumor inhibitory effects. Gnetin C in 25 mg/kg dose exhibited tumor inhibitory effects comparable with Pter in 50 mg/kg dose. Consistent with the effective antitumor effects, Gnetin C-treated tumors showed reduced mitotic activity and angiogenesis and a significant increase in apoptosis compared to all the other groups. The data suggest that Gnetin C is more potent in slowing tumor progression in prostate cancer xenografts than Res or Pter. Taken together, we demonstrated, for the first time, that Gnetin C is a lead compound among stilbenes for effectively blocking prostate cancer progression in vivo.
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