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Jones NAR, Cortese D, Munson A, Spence‐Jones HC, Storm Z, Killen SS, Bethel R, Deacon AE, Webster MM, Závorka L. Maze design: size and number of choices impact fish performance in cognitive assays. J Fish Biol 2023; 103:974-984. [PMID: 37386747 PMCID: PMC10952265 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.15493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/01/2023]
Abstract
Although studies on fish cognition are increasing, consideration of how methodological details influence the ability to detect and measure performance is lagging. Here, in two separate experiments the authors compared latency to leave the start position, latency to make a decision, levels of participation and success rates (whether fish entered the rewarded chamber as first choice) across different physical designs. Experiments compared fish performance across (a) two sizes of T-mazes, large and standard, and a plus-maze, and (b) open choice arenas with either two or four doors. Fish in T-mazes with longer arms took longer to leave the start chamber and were less likely to participate in a trial than fish in T-mazes with shorter arms. The number of options, or complexity, in a maze significantly impacted success but did not necessarily impact behavioural measures, and did not impact the number of fish that reached a chamber. Fish in the plus-maze had similar latencies to leave the start box and time to reach any chamber as fish in the same-sized T-maze but exhibited lower overall success. Similarly, in an open choice arena, increasing the number of options - doors to potential reward chambers - resulted in lower probability of success. There was an influence of reward position in the choice arena, with rewarded chambers closest to the sides of the arena resulting in lower latencies to enter and higher probability of decision success. Together the results allow the authors to offer practical suggestions towards optimal maze design for studies of fish cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nick A. R. Jones
- Department of Animal PhysiologyUniversity of BayreuthBayreuthGermany
- Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution, School of Biology, University of St AndrewsSt AndrewsUK
| | - Daphne Cortese
- School of Biodiversity, One Health and Veterinary Medicine, University of GlasgowGlasgowUK
| | - Amelia Munson
- School of Biodiversity, One Health and Veterinary Medicine, University of GlasgowGlasgowUK
| | - Helen C. Spence‐Jones
- Alfred‐Wegener‐Institut Helmholtz‐Zentrum für Polar‐ und Meeresforschung, Wadden Sea Station SyltListGermany
| | - Zoe Storm
- School of Biodiversity, One Health and Veterinary Medicine, University of GlasgowGlasgowUK
| | - Shaun S. Killen
- School of Biodiversity, One Health and Veterinary Medicine, University of GlasgowGlasgowUK
| | - Ruth Bethel
- Department of Life SciencesThe University of the West IndiesSt AugustineTrinidad and Tobago
| | - Amy E. Deacon
- Department of Life SciencesThe University of the West IndiesSt AugustineTrinidad and Tobago
| | - Mike M. Webster
- Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution, School of Biology, University of St AndrewsSt AndrewsUK
| | - Libor Závorka
- WasserCluster Lunz – Biologische Station, Inter‐university Centre for Aquatic Ecosystem ResearchLunz am SeeAustria
- Danube University KremsKremsAustria
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Fontrodona-Eslava A, Deacon AE, Ramnarine IW, Magurran AE. Numerical abundance and biomass reveal different temporal trends of functional diversity change in tropical fish assemblages. J Fish Biol 2021; 99:1079-1086. [PMID: 34080198 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.14812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Understanding how the biodiversity of freshwater fish assemblages changes over time is an important challenge. Until recently most emphasis has been on taxonomic diversity, but it is now clear that measures of functional diversity (FD) can shed new light on the mechanisms that underpin this temporal change. Fish biologists use different currencies, such as numerical abundance and biomass, to measure the abundance of fish species. Nonetheless, because they are not necessarily equivalent, these alternative currencies have the potential to reveal different insights into trends of FD in natural assemblages. In this study, the authors asked how conclusions about temporal trends in FD are influenced by the way in which the abundance of species has been quantified. To do this, the authors computed two informative metrics, for each currency, for 16 freshwater fish assemblages in Trinidad's Northern Range that had been surveyed repeatedly over 5 years. The authors found that numerical abundance and biomass uncover different directional trends in these assemblages for each facet of FD, and as such inform hypotheses about the ways in which these systems are being restructured. On the basis of these results, the authors concluded that a combined approach, in which both currencies are used, contributes to our understanding of the ecological processes that are involved in biodiversity change in freshwater fish assemblages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ada Fontrodona-Eslava
- Centre for Biological Diversity, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Amy E Deacon
- Department of Life Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Indar W Ramnarine
- Department of Life Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Anne E Magurran
- Centre for Biological Diversity, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
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Arnold H, Deacon AE, Hulme MF, Sansom A, Jaggernauth D, Magurran AE. Contrasting trends in biodiversity of birds and trees during succession following cacao agroforest abandonment. J Appl Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.13869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Haley Arnold
- School of Biology University of St Andrews St Andrews UK
| | - Amy E. Deacon
- Department of Life Sciences The University of the West Indies St Augustine Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Mark F. Hulme
- Department of Life Sciences The University of the West Indies St Augustine Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Alex Sansom
- Trinidad and Tobago Field Naturalists’ Club Port of Spain Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Dan Jaggernauth
- Trinidad and Tobago Field Naturalists’ Club Port of Spain Trinidad and Tobago
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Tuckett QM, Deacon AE, Fraser D, Lyons TJ, Lawson KM, Hill JE. Unstable intraguild predation causes establishment failure of a globally invasive species. Ecology 2021; 102:e03411. [PMID: 34028015 DOI: 10.1002/ecy.3411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Biotic resistance is often posited, but rarely known, to be the cause of invasion failure. Competition and predation are the most frequently identified processes that may prevent or limit the establishment of nonnative species. Interactions between nonnative and native species that involve intraguild predation (IGP) are very common in nature, although theory predicts most IGP systems should be unstable and lead to extinction. If this prediction is true, the frequency of invasion failures due to IGP may be underappreciated because of their fleeting nature and, thus, studies of unstable IGP systems are lacking, despite the opportunities they offer for understanding the factors affecting their unstable dynamics. We investigated a failed invasion involving an IGP relationship. In Florida, the guppy (Poecilia reticulata), a worldwide invader, fails to establish in the presence of eastern mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki). We tested whether and how resident mosquitofish cause guppy invasion failure using replicated mesocosm and aquarium trials. Both the predator and competitor components of the IGP relationship were strongly asymmetrical, with large impacts on guppies. We identified two effects, direct consumption of neonates and aggressive interference competition, that limited survival and recruitment. The highly unstable nature of this IGP relationship is the primary cause of the failure of the guppy to establish in Florida. Our study shows that the transient nature of an ephemeral IGP relationship can yield important insights into the underlying causes of invasion failure, including the role of strong biotic resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quenton M Tuckett
- Tropical Aquaculture Laboratory, Program in Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, School of Forest Resources and Conservation, University of Florida, Ruskin, Florida, 33570, USA
| | - Amy E Deacon
- Department of Life Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Douglas Fraser
- Department of Biology, Siena College, Loudonville, New York, 12211, USA
| | - Timothy J Lyons
- Tropical Aquaculture Laboratory, Program in Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, School of Forest Resources and Conservation, University of Florida, Ruskin, Florida, 33570, USA
| | - Katelyn M Lawson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama, 36849, USA
| | - Jeffrey E Hill
- Tropical Aquaculture Laboratory, Program in Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, School of Forest Resources and Conservation, University of Florida, Ruskin, Florida, 33570, USA
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White SA, Deacon AE. Where one species leads, another follows: interspecies processions in tropical caterpillars. Ecology 2020; 102:e03249. [PMID: 33222162 DOI: 10.1002/ecy.3249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Revised: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie A White
- Department of Life Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Amy E Deacon
- Department of Life Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
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Jones FAM, Rutherford MG, Deacon AE, Phillip DAT, Magurran AE. Quantifying regional biodiversity in the tropics: A case study of freshwater fish in Trinidad and Tobago. Biotropica 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/btp.12692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Faith A. M. Jones
- Centre for Biological Diversity School of Biology University of St Andrews St Andrews UK
| | - Mike G. Rutherford
- Department of Life Sciences The University of the West Indies St Augustine Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Amy E. Deacon
- Department of Life Sciences The University of the West Indies St Augustine Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Dawn A. T. Phillip
- Department of Life Sciences The University of the West Indies St Augustine Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Anne E. Magurran
- Centre for Biological Diversity School of Biology University of St Andrews St Andrews UK
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Barbosa M, Deacon AE, Janeiro MJ, Ramnarine I, Morrissey MB, Magurran AE. Individual variation in reproductive behaviour is linked to temporal heterogeneity in predation risk. Proc Biol Sci 2019; 285:rspb.2017.1499. [PMID: 29321293 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2017.1499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2017] [Accepted: 12/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Variation in predation risk is a major driver of ecological and evolutionary change, and, in turn, of geographical variation in behaviour. While predation risk is rarely constant in natural populations, the extent to which variation in predation risk shapes individual behaviour in wild populations remains unclear. Here, we investigated individual differences in reproductive behaviour in 16 Trinidadian guppy populations and related it to the observed variation in predator biomass each population experienced. Our results show that high heterogeneity in predator biomass is linked to individual behavioural diversification. Increased within-population heterogeneity in predator biomass is also associated with behavioural polymorphism. Some individuals adjust the frequency of consensual mating behaviour in response to differences in sex ratio context, while others display constantly at elevated frequencies. This pattern is analogous to a 'live fast, die young' pace-of-life syndrome. Notably, both high and low mean differences in predator biomass led to a homogenization of individual frequency of consensual mating displays. Overall, our results demonstrate that individual behavioural variation is associated with heterogeneity in predator biomass, but not necessarily with changes in mean values of predator biomass. We suggest that heterogeneity in predator biomass is an informative predictor of adaptive responses to changes in biotic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Barbosa
- Centre for Biological Diversity, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK .,School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK.,CESAM, Departamento de Biologia, Universidade de Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Amy E Deacon
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK.,Department of Life Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Maria Joao Janeiro
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK.,CESAM, Departamento de Biologia, Universidade de Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Indar Ramnarine
- Department of Life Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
| | | | - Anne E Magurran
- Centre for Biological Diversity, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK.,School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK
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Abstract
The importance of predation risk as a key driver of evolutionary change is exemplified by the Northern Range in Trinidad, where research on guppies living in multiple parallel streams has provided invaluable insights into the process of evolution by natural selection. Although Trinidadian guppies are now a textbook example of evolution in action, studies have generally categorized predation as a dichotomous variable, representing high or low risk. Yet, ecologists appreciate that community structure and the attendant predation risk vary substantially over space and time. Here, we use data from a longitudinal study of fish assemblages at 16 different sites in the Northern Range to quantify temporal and spatial variation in predation risk. Specifically we ask: 1) Is there evidence for a gradient in predation risk? 2) Does the ranking of sites (by risk) change with the definition of the predator community (in terms of species composition and abundance currency), and 3) Are site rankings consistent over time? We find compelling evidence that sites lie along a continuum of risk. However, site rankings along this gradient depend on how predation is quantified in terms of the species considered to be predators and the abundance currency is used. Nonetheless, for a given categorization and currency, rankings are relatively consistent over time. Our study suggests that consideration of predation gradients will lead to a more nuanced understanding of the role of predation risk in behavioral and evolutionary ecology. It also emphasizes the need to justify and report the definition of predation risk being used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy E Deacon
- Department of Life Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9TH Scotland, UK
| | - Faith A M Jones
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9TH Scotland, UK
| | - Anne E Magurran
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9TH Scotland, UK
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Abstract
The Earth's ecosystems are under unprecedented pressure, yet the nature of contemporary biodiversity change is not well understood. Growing evidence that community size is regulated highlights the need for improved understanding of community dynamics. As stability in community size could be underpinned by marked temporal turnover, a key question is the extent to which changes in both biodiversity dimensions (temporal α- and temporal β-diversity) covary within and among the assemblages that comprise natural communities. Here, we draw on a multiassemblage dataset (encompassing vertebrates, invertebrates, and unicellular plants) from a tropical freshwater ecosystem and employ a cyclic shift randomization to assess whether any directional change in temporal α-diversity and temporal β-diversity exceeds baseline levels. In the majority of cases, α-diversity remains stable over the 5-y time frame of our analysis, with little evidence for systematic change at the community level. In contrast, temporal β-diversity changes are more prevalent, and the two diversity dimensions are decoupled at both the within- and among-assemblage level. Consequently, a pressing research challenge is to establish how turnover supports regulation and when elevated temporal β-diversity jeopardizes community integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne E Magurran
- Centre for Biological Diversity, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9TH, Scotland, United Kingdom;
| | - Amy E Deacon
- Centre for Biological Diversity, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9TH, Scotland, United Kingdom
- Department of Life Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Faye Moyes
- Centre for Biological Diversity, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9TH, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Hideyasu Shimadzu
- Centre for Biological Diversity, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9TH, Scotland, United Kingdom
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough LE11 3TU, United Kingdom
| | - Maria Dornelas
- Centre for Biological Diversity, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9TH, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Dawn A T Phillip
- Department of Life Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Indar W Ramnarine
- Department of Life Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
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Abstract
There is remarkable diversity in brain anatomy among vertebrates and evidence is accumulating that predatory interactions are crucially important for this diversity. To test this hypothesis, we collected female guppies (Poecilia reticulata) from 16 wild populations and related their brain anatomy to several aspects of predation pressure in this ecosystem, such as the biomass of the four major predators of guppies (one prawn and three fish species), and predator diversity (number of predatory fish species in each site). We found that populations from localities with higher prawn biomass had relatively larger telencephalon size as well as larger brains. Optic tectum size was positively associated with one of the fish predator’s biomass and with overall predator diversity. However, both olfactory bulb and hypothalamus size were negatively associated with the biomass of another of the fish predators. Hence, while fish predator occurrence is associated with variation in brain anatomy, prawn occurrence is associated with variation in brain size. Our results suggest that cognitive challenges posed by local differences in predator communities may lead to changes in prey brain anatomy in the wild.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Kotrschal
- 1Department of Ethology/Zoology, Stockholm University, Svante Arheniusväg 18B, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Amy E Deacon
- 2Department of Life Sciences, The University of the West Indies, St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Anne E Magurran
- 3School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Scotland, UK
| | - Niclas Kolm
- 1Department of Ethology/Zoology, Stockholm University, Svante Arheniusväg 18B, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden
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Deacon AE, Shimadzu H, Dornelas M, Ramnarine IW, Magurran AE. From species to communities: the signature of recreational use on a tropical river ecosystem. Ecol Evol 2015; 5:5561-72. [PMID: 27069606 PMCID: PMC4813113 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.1800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2015] [Revised: 09/14/2015] [Accepted: 10/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Disturbance can impact natural communities in multiple ways. However, there has been a tendency to focus on single indicators of change when examining the effects of disturbance. This is problematic as classical diversity measures, such as Shannon and Simpson indices, do not always detect the effects of disturbance. Here, we instead take a multilevel, hierarchical approach, looking for signatures of disturbance in the capacity and diversity of the community, and also in allocation and demography at the population level. Using recreational use as an example of disturbance, and the freshwater streams of Trinidad as a model ecosystem, we repeatedly sampled the fish communities and physical parameters of eight pairs of recreational and nonrecreational sites every 3 months over a 28-month period. We also chose the Trinidadian guppy (Poecilia reticulata) as the subject of our population-level analyses. Regression tree analysis, together with analysis of deviance, revealed that community capacity and community species richness were greater at sites with higher levels of recreational use. Interestingly, measures of community diversity that took into account the proportional abundance of each species were not significantly associated with recreational use. Neither did we find any direct association between recreational use and proportion of guppy biomass in the community. However, population-level differences were detected in the guppy: Sex ratio was significantly more female-biased at more disturbed sites. Our findings emphasize the importance of considering multiple levels when asking how disturbance impacts a community. We advocate the use of a multilevel approach when monitoring the effects of disturbance, and highlight gaps in our knowledge when it comes to interpreting these effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy E. Deacon
- Centre for Biological DiversityUniversity of St AndrewsSt AndrewsFifeUnited Kingdom
| | - Hideyasu Shimadzu
- Centre for Biological DiversityUniversity of St AndrewsSt AndrewsFifeUnited Kingdom
| | - Maria Dornelas
- Centre for Biological DiversityUniversity of St AndrewsSt AndrewsFifeUnited Kingdom
| | - Indar W. Ramnarine
- Department of Life SciencesThe University of the West IndiesSt AugustineTrinidad and Tobago
| | - Anne E. Magurran
- Centre for Biological DiversityUniversity of St AndrewsSt AndrewsFifeUnited Kingdom
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Deacon AE, Barbosa M, Magurran AE. Forced monogamy in a multiply mating species does not impede colonisation success. BMC Ecol 2014; 14:18. [PMID: 24925225 PMCID: PMC4067062 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6785-14-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2014] [Accepted: 06/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The guppy (Poecilia reticulata) is a successful invasive species. It is also a species that mates multiply; previous studies have demonstrated that this strategy carries fitness benefits. Guppies are routinely introduced to tanks and troughs in regions outside their native range for mosquito-control purposes, and often spread beyond these initial confines into natural water bodies with negative ecological consequences. Here, using a mesocosm set up that resembles the containers into which single guppies are typically introduced for mosquito control, we ask whether singly-mated females are at a disadvantage, relative to multiply-mated females, when it comes to founding a population. Treatments were monitored for one year. RESULTS A key finding was that mating history did not predict establishment success, which was 88% in both treatments. Furthermore, analysis of behavioural traits revealed that the descendants of singly-mated females retained antipredator behaviours, and that adult males showed no decrease in courtship vigour. Also, we detected no differences in behavioural variability between treatments. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that even when denied the option of multiple mating, singly-mated female guppies can produce viable populations, at least at the founder stage. This may prove to be a critical advantage in typical introduction scenarios where few individuals are released into enclosed water bodies before finding their way into natural ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy E Deacon
- Centre for Biological Diversity, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9TH, UK.
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Reeve AJ, Ojanguren AF, Deacon AE, Shimadzu H, Ramnarine IW, Magurran AE. Interplay of temperature and light influences wild guppy (Poecilia reticulata) daily reproductive activity. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Al J. Reeve
- Scottish Oceans Institute; University of St Andrews; St Andrews KY16 8LB UK
| | | | - Amy E. Deacon
- Scottish Oceans Institute; University of St Andrews; St Andrews KY16 8LB UK
| | - Hideyasu Shimadzu
- Scottish Oceans Institute; University of St Andrews; St Andrews KY16 8LB UK
- Department of Mathematics; Keio University; Yokohama Japan
| | | | - Anne E. Magurran
- Scottish Oceans Institute; University of St Andrews; St Andrews KY16 8LB UK
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