Dietary Fibre Intake in Chile: 13 Years after the Last National Report

BACKGROUND

The objective is to provide updated data on the intake of total dietary fibre in the population residing in Chile and to identify food sources that contribute most to its intake, as well as its association with different sociodemographic and nutritional status-related determinants.

METHODS

In this descriptive cross-sectional study, a nationwide survey was applied to determine fibre intake using an instrument that has been previously validated in the resident population of Chile.

RESULTS

The sample consisted of a total of 1761 participants. Dietary fibre intake was 12.8 ± 7.1 g/day for the total population, and 90% of participants did not meet the recommendation, with no differences in consumption by sex, geographical area, and the urban/rural population. A lower consumption was found among participants with overweight and obesity. According to food groups, bread was the major contributor to fibre intake, providing 4.39 ± 3.05 g/day, followed by cereals (2.26 ± 2.80 g/day) and vegetables (1.85 ± 1.59 g/day).

CONCLUSIONS

90% of the population consume less fibre than recommended, and bread is the main food source; these data are critical for the development of strategies that are aimed at changing habits in order to improve diet quality.

[The role of intestinal microbiota in the development of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease]

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) encompasses a wide spectrum of hepatic pathologies ranging from simple steatosis (SS) to hepatocellular carcinoma. Intestinal microbiota (IM) is composed of trillions of microorganisms existing in the gut. It has 150 times more genes than the host. Changes in the composition and function of the IM are associated with different diseases, including NAFLD. In this condition, IM could have a pathogenic role through different mechanisms such as energy salvaging from food, an inflammatory stimulus, a modulation of the innate immune system, regulation of bile acid turnover, alteration of choline metabolism and increasing endogenous ethanol levels. This review is an update on the role of the intestinal microbiota in NAFLD and the possible mechanisms involved.

Asociación entre el sistema de recompensa del cerebro y elección de comida en adultos mayores y de mediana edad

Introducción. Todos los días las personas toman diferentes decisiones relacionadas con su elección de alimentos, lo que a su vez determina sus hábitos alimenticios. El sistema de recompensa del cerebro (SRC) permite asociar ciertas situaciones con una sensación de placer, lo que influye en la posterior elección de alimentos.Objetivo. Describir cómo influye el SRC en el proceso de elección de comida en adultos de mediana edad y en adultos mayores autosuficientes.Materiales y métodos. Se realizó una búsqueda de la literatura en PubMed y SciELO. Se buscaron artículos escritos en inglés y español y publicados entre 1996 y 2018 utilizando los siguientes términos (en ambos idiomas): ”elección de la comida”, “sistema de recompensa”, “nutrición”, “adulto”, “adulto mayor”, “estado nutricional” y “envejecimiento”.Resultados. 50 artículos cumplieron con los criterios de inclusión. Solo 1 estudio estaba escrito en español; 22 fueron realizados en adultos mayores y el resto en adultos entre 20 y 40 años.Conclusiones. Teniendo en cuenta el escaso número de estudios sobre la conducta alimentaria en general, y en particular sobre la elección de comida en adultos mayores y de mediana edad, es necesario realizar más estudios en Latinoamérica sobre los procesos que subyacen al SRC y su relación con la elección de comida, y cómo estos cambian con la edad para predecir posibles conductas alimentarias e implementar intervenciones efectivas, pues una dieta saludable es esencial para un envejecimiento saludable.

Association of eating behaviour with clock gene polymorphism 3111 T > C in children based on nutritional status

Background: The CLOCK (circadian locomotor output cycle kaput) gene is a central regulator of circadian rhythm. The CLOCK gene has been related to energy intake and therefore to nutritional status. However, its specific associations with aspects of food behaviour in children have been scarcely investigated.Aim: To determine the association between the CLOCK gene polymorphism 3111 T > C and eating behaviours in children based on nutritional status.Methods: A cross-sectional study of the association between a CLOCK gene variant and eating behaviour in children (n = 256) was performed. Eating behaviour was evaluated by the Child Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (CEBQ). In addition, the genotype of the CLOCK 3111 T > C (TT, CC, TC) gene polymorphism and BMI were determined.Results: The obese carriers of the C allele of the polymorphism had lower scores in the dimensions "response to satiety" and "slowness to eat" (p < 0.001), both of which constitute an anti-intake dimension and are related to food satiety.Conclusions: The C allele CLOCK gene could be considered a genetic risk factor for satiety-altered eating behaviour dimensions.

Association between Eating Behavior and Academic Performance in University Students

OBJECTIVE

To determine the association between academic performance and eating behavior in university students in Chile.

METHODS

A total of 680 college students, 409 (60%) women and 271 (40%) men, were randomly recruited and the mean age of the entire sample was 26. The Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ), which evaluates 3 dimensions of eating behavior-cognitive restriction (limiting own intake), uncontrolled eating (inclination to eat), and emotional eating (control of food intake in the context of negative emotions)-was used. Academic performance was measured by the grade point average (GPA) and was associated with eating behavior.

RESULTS

Women had significantly higher scores in the "emotional eating" dimension than men (p = 0.002). The eating behavior analysis showed that female students with higher GPAs (above 5.5) had statistically significantly lower uncontrolled eating scores (p = 0.03) and higher cognitive restriction scores (p = 0.05) than women with lower academic performance (below 5.5). There were no significant associations between eating behavior and academic performance in men.

CONCLUSIONS

A positive association between eating behavior and academic performance was observed in female university students in Chile. Further studies are needed to explore the causes of this association and determine how to improve the nutritional habits of this population.

Association of the melanocortin 4 receptor gene rs17782313 polymorphism with rewarding value of food and eating behavior in Chilean children

Studies conducted in monozygotic and dizygotic twins have established a strong genetic component in eating behavior. Rare mutations and common variants of the melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R) gene have been linked to obesity and eating behavior scores. However, few studies have assessed common variants in MC4R gene with the rewarding value of food in children. The objective of the study was to evaluate the association between the MC4R rs17782313 polymorphism with homeostatic and non-homeostatic eating behavior patterns in Chileans children. This is a cross-sectional study in 258 Chilean children (44 % female, 8-14 years old) showing a wide variation in BMI. Anthropometric measurements (weight, height, Z-score of BMI and waist circumference) were performed by standard procedures. Eating behavior was assessed using the Eating in Absence of Hunger Questionnaire (EAHQ), the Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire (CEBQ), the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ), and the Food Reinforcement Value Questionnaire (FRVQ). Genotype of the rs17782313 nearby MC4R was determined by a Taqman assay. Association of the rs17782313 C allele with eating behavior was assessed using non-parametric tests. We found that children carrying the CC genotype have higher scores of food responsiveness (p value = 0.02). In obese girls, carriers of the C allele showed lower scores of satiety responsiveness (p value = 0.02) and higher scores of uncontrolled eating (p value = 0.01). Obese boys carrying the C allele showed lower rewarding value of food in relation to non-carriers. The rs17782313 C allele is associated with eating behavior traits that may predispose obese children to increased energy intake and obesity.

Melanocortin-4 Receptor Gene Variation Is Associated with Eating Behavior in Chilean Adults

BACKGROUND/AIMS

To evaluate the association between allelic variants of melanocortin receptors -3 and -4 (MC3R and MC4R, respectively) and leptin receptor (LEPR) genes with body mass index (BMI) and eating behavior.

METHODS

We selected 344 Chilean adults (57.8% women; age 39.1 ± 6.6 years) with a wide variation in BMI (30.3 ± 6.3 kg/m²). The Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire-R18 that measures uncontrolled eating (UE), emotional eating (EE) and cognitive restraint scores was adapted, validated and assessed for association with BMI. Genotypes were determined by polymerase chain reaction followed by restriction fragment length polymorphism techniques and Taqman assays.

RESULTS

Higher EE scores were found in obese vs. non-obese in both men (p = 0.01) and women (p < 0.001). UE scores were significantly associated with BMI only in women (p = 0.002). No significant differences in eating behavior scores or BMI were found by LEPR (rs1137101, rs8179183 and rs1137100 polymorphisms) or MC3R (rs3746619 and rs3827103). Carriers of the C allele for MC4R rs17782313 showed significantly higher scores of UE compared to non-carriers (2.3 ± 0.8 vs. 2.0 ± 0.7; p = 0.02). Additionally, we also report a monogenic case of obesity carrying the pathogenic mutation 449C>T (Thr150Ile) in MC4R gene with no apparent alterations in eating behavior scores.

CONCLUSIONS

UE scores were higher in C-allele carriers of MC4R-rs17782313 compared to non-carriers.

Association between genetic variants of the clock gene and obesity and sleep duration

Obesity is a multifactorial disease caused by the interaction of genetic and environmental factors related to lifestyle aspects. It has been shown that reduced sleep is associated with increased body mass index (BMI). Circadian Locomotor Output Cycles Kaput (CLOCK) gene variants have also been associated with obesity. The objective of this mini-review was to discuss the available literature related to CLOCK gene variants associated with adiposity and sleep duration in humans. In total, 16 articles complied with the terms of the search that reported CLOCK variants associated with sleep duration, energy intake, and BMI. Overall, six CLOCK single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) have been associated with sleep duration, and three variants have been associated with energy intake variables. Overall, the most studied area has been the association of CLOCK gene with obesity; close to eight common variants have been associated with obesity. The most studied CLOCK SNP in different populations is rs1801260, and most of these populations correspond to European populations. Collectively, identifying at risk CLOCK genotypes is a new area of research that may help identify individuals who are more susceptible to overeating and gaining weight when exposed to short sleep durations.

Childhood obesity and eating behaviour

The prevalence of childhood obesity has increased substantially in the recent decade as a result of the reduction in physical activity and the availability of high-fat and high-energy-density foods which the paediatric population faces daily. Although children are highly exposed to these foods, there is a wide variation in body weight, suggesting the presence of different patterns of response to an "obesogenic" environment. This wide variability from the point of view of eating behaviour involves a number of social issues (e.g., food availability, cost) as well as genuine behavioural traits such as the response to satiety, energy compensation, eating rate, responsiveness to food, food reward and dietary preferences. This article reviews the main physiological variables related to energy intake affecting eating behaviour in the paediatric population.

[Association between feeding behavior, and genetic polymorphism of leptin and its receptor in obese Chilean children]

INTRODUCTION

Leptin (LEP) is mainly produced in adipose tissue and acts in the hypothalamus to regulate energy intake. Mutations in the LEP gene or its receptor (LEPR) that produce monogenic obesity are infrequent. However, LEP and LEPR polymorphisms have been associated with obesity multifactorial, due to the association found with body weight and eating behavior.

AIM

Measure the association between LEP and LEPR polymorphisms with childhood obesity and eating behavior.

METHODS

221 Chilean obese children (BMI above the 95th percentile) were recruited. Parents of 134 of these children were also recruited to determine the association between LEP and LEPR polymorphisms with obesity in a case study-parent trio. Eating behavior was measured through the questionnaire of three factors progenitors' version (TFEQ-P19) and eating behavior in children (CEBQ).

RESULTS

No significant difference between the studied polymorphisms and childhood obesity, after correction for multiple comparisons, was observed. The dimensions; "Slow eating", "emotional eating", "enjoyment of food" and "uncontrolling eating" were significant associated with certain polymorphisms of LEP and LEPR.

CONCLUSIONS

There would be an association between polymorphisms of the LEP and LEPR genes with eating behavior in Chilean obese children.

Prevalence of metabolic syndrome in obese Chilean children and association with gene variants of the leptin-melanocortin system

Metabolic syndrome (MS) related to adult type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease is prevalent among obese children/adolescents. Genetic variants of the leptin-melanocortin system have been associated with components of MS. The aim of our study is to estimate the prevalence of MS (according to Cook's criteria) in a Chilean cross-sectional sample of 259 obese children (47.1% girls, aged 6-12 years), and to assess the association between common genetic variants of leptin-melanocortin pathway genes (LEP, LEPR, POMC, MC3R and MC4R) with components of the MS using logistic regression. We observed an overall MS prevalence of 26.3% (32.2% in girls and 21.1% in boys) in obese Chilean children. No associations were detected between genetic variants of leptin-melanocortin genes and MS components. MS prevalence among our obese children sample is similar to those previously described in Chile, demonstrating the increased risk of diseases in adulthood that obese children carry.

Molecular mechanisms of steatosis in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most important cause of chronic liver disease and is considered the hepatic manifestation of the metabolic syndrome associated with diabetes mellitus type 2. The prevalence of NAFLD in the general population reaches 15-20%. It is also estimated that nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) affects 3% of the population. NAFLD refers to a wide spectrum of liver damage, which ranges from simple steatosis or intracellular triglyceride accumulation, to inflammation (NASH), fibrosis and cirrhosis. The mechanisms involved in the accumulation of triglycerides in the liver and subsequent hepatocellular damage are multifactorial and are not completely understood. However, metabolic changes such as insulin resistance (IR) are developed, being a common factor in the retention of fatty acids (FA) within the hepatocytes with oxidation and production of free radicals at the mitochondrial level, which are capable of causing lipid peroxidation, cytokine production, and necrosis. In addition, there are alterations in the hepatic bioavailability of long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, conditions that alter the expression of a series of transcriptional factors involved in lipolytic and lipogenic processes in the liver. A greater knowledge of the etiopathogenic mechanisms of NAFLD is fundamental for the development of future effective therapeutic strategies. The pathophysiological fundamentals of liver steatosis are analyzed in this study.

Melanocortin-4 receptor gene variants in Chilean families: association with childhood obesity and eating behavior

OBJECTIVE

To screen for mutations in the coding region of the melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) gene and to assess the association between the rs17782313 variant near MC4R with childhood obesity and eating behavior.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

A cross-sectional sample of 221 obese Chilean children and 268 parents were incorporated in the study to assemble 134 case-parent trios. We performed direct sequencing of the MC4R coding region while the rs17782313 variant was genotyped by a Taqman assay. Eating behavior scores were calculated using the Child Eating Behavior and Three Factor Eating Questionnaires adapted for Chilean families.

RESULTS

A low frequency of genetic variation in the coding region of MC4R was found in Chilean obese children (Thr150Ile mutation and polymorphisms Ile251Leu and Val103Ile). The rs17782313 variant is possibly associated with satiety responsiveness (P = 0.01) and enjoyment of food scores (P = 0.03).

CONCLUSION

The rs17782313 variant may influence eating behavior in obese children.