Spatial Engineering of Mammary Epithelial Cell Cultures with 3D Bioprinting Reveals Growth Control by Branch Point Proximity

The three-dimensional (3D) structure of the ductal epithelium and the surrounding extracellular matrix (ECM) are integral aspects of the breast tissue, and they have important roles during mammary gland development, function and malignancy. However, the architecture of the branched mammary epithelial network is poorly recapitulated in the current in vitro models. 3D bioprinting is an emerging approach to improve tissue-mimicry in cell culture. Here, we developed and optimized a protocol for 3D bioprinting of normal and cancerous mammary epithelial cells into a branched Y-shape to study the role of cell positioning in the regulation of cell proliferation and invasion. Non-cancerous cells formed continuous 3D cell networks with several organotypic features, whereas the ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) -like cancer cells exhibited aberrant basal polarization and defective formation of the basement membrane (BM). Quantitative analysis over time demonstrated that both normal and cancerous cells proliferate more at the branch tips compared to the trunk region of the 3D-bioprinted cultures, and particularly at the tip further away from the branch point. The location-specific rate of proliferation was independent of TGFβ signaling but invasion of the DCIS-like breast cancer cells was reduced upon the inhibition of TGFβ. Thus, our data demonstrate that the 3D-bioprinted cells can sense their position in the branched network of cells and proliferate at the tips, thus recapitulating this feature of mammary epithelial branching morphogenesis. In all, our results demonstrate the capacity of the developed 3D bioprinting method for quantitative analysis of the relationships between tissue structure and cell behavior in breast morphogenesis and cancer.

Ex Vivo Drug Screening Informed Targeted Therapy for Metastatic Parotid Squamous Cell Carcinoma

The purpose of ex vivo drug screening in the context of precision oncology is to serve as a functional diagnostic method for therapy efficacy modeling directly on patient-derived tumor cells. Here, we report a case study using integrated multiomics ex vivo drug screening approach to assess therapy efficacy in a rare metastatic squamous cell carcinoma of the parotid gland. Tumor cells isolated from lymph node metastasis and distal subcutaneous metastasis were used for imaging-based single-cell resolution drug screening and reverse-phase protein array-based drug screening assays to inform the treatment strategy after standard therapeutic options had been exhausted. The drug targets discovered on the basis of the ex vivo measured drug efficacy were validated with histopathology, genomic profiling, and in vitro cell biology methods, and targeted treatments with durable clinical responses were achieved. These results demonstrate the use of serial ex vivo drug screening to inform adjuvant therapy options prior to and during treatment and highlight HER2 as a potential therapy target also in metastatic squamous cell carcinoma of the salivary glands.

Ex vivo assessment of targeted therapies in a rare metastatic epithelial-myoepithelial carcinoma

Epithelial-myoepithelial carcinoma (EMC) is a rare subtype of salivary gland neoplasms. Since the initial description of the cancer, just over 300 cases have been reported. EMCs occupy a biphasic cellular differentiation-state defined by the constitution of two cell types representing epithelial and myoepithelial lineages, yet the functional consequence of the differentiation-state heterogeneity with respect to therapy resistance of the tumors remains unclear. The reported local recurrence rate of the cases is approximately 30%, and while distant metastases are rare, a significant fraction of these cases are reported to receive no survival benefit from radio- or chemotherapy given in addition to surgery. Moreover, no targeted therapies have been reported for these neoplasms. We report here the first use and application of ex vivo drug screening together with next generation sequencing to assess targeted treatment strategies for a rare metastatic epithelial-myoepithelial carcinoma. Results of the ex vivo drug screen demonstrate significant differential therapeutic sensitivity between the epithelial and myoepithelial intra-tumor cell lineages suggesting that differentiation-state heterogeneity within epithelial-myoepithelial carcinomas may present an outlet to partial therapeutic responses to targeted therapies including MEK and mTOR inhibitors. These results suggest that the intra-tumor lineage composition of EMC could be an important factor to be assessed when novel treatments are being evaluated for management of metastatic EMC.

Ex vivo modelling of drug efficacy in a rare metastatic urachal carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Ex vivo drug screening refers to the out-of-body assessment of drug efficacy in patient derived vital tumor cells. The purpose of these methods is to enable functional testing of patient specific efficacy of anti-cancer therapeutics and personalized treatment strategies. Such approaches could prove powerful especially in context of rare cancers for which demonstration of novel therapies is difficult due to the low numbers of patients. Here, we report comparison of different ex vivo drug screening methods in a metastatic urachal adenocarcinoma, a rare and aggressive non-urothelial bladder malignancy that arises from the remnant embryologic urachus in adults.

METHODS

To compare the feasibility and results obtained with alternative ex vivo drug screening techniques, we used three different approaches; enzymatic cell viability assay of 2D cell cultures and image-based cytometry of 2D and 3D cell cultures in parallel. Vital tumor cells isolated from a biopsy obtained in context of a surgical debulking procedure were used for screening of 1160 drugs with the aim to evaluate patterns of efficacy in the urachal cancer cells.

RESULTS

Dose response data from the enzymatic cell viability assay and the image-based assay of 2D cell cultures showed the best consistency. With 3D cell culture conditions, the proliferation rate of the tumor cells was slower and potency of several drugs was reduced even following growth rate normalization of the responses. MEK, mTOR, and MET inhibitors were identified as the most cytotoxic targeted drugs. Secondary validation analyses confirmed the efficacy of these drugs also with the new human urachal adenocarcinoma cell line (MISB18) established from the patient's tumor.

CONCLUSIONS

All the tested ex vivo drug screening methods captured the patient's tumor cells' sensitivity to drugs that could be associated with the oncogenic KRAS^G12V mutation found in the patient's tumor cells. Specific drug classes however resulted in differential dose response profiles dependent on the used cell culture method indicating that the choice of assay could bias results from ex vivo drug screening assays for selected drug classes.

GGA2 and RAB13 promote activity-dependent β1-integrin recycling

β1-integrins mediate cell-matrix interactions and their trafficking is important in the dynamic regulation of cell adhesion, migration and malignant processes, including cancer cell invasion. Here, we employ an RNAi screen to characterize regulators of integrin traffic and identify the association of Golgi-localized gamma ear-containing Arf-binding protein 2 (GGA2) with β1-integrin, and its role in recycling of active but not inactive β1-integrin receptors. Silencing of GGA2 limits active β1-integrin levels in focal adhesions and decreases cancer cell migration and invasion, which is in agreement with its ability to regulate the dynamics of active integrins. By using the proximity-dependent biotin identification (BioID) method, we identified two RAB family small GTPases, i.e. RAB13 and RAB10, as novel interactors of GGA2. Functionally, RAB13 silencing triggers the intracellular accumulation of active β1-integrin, and reduces integrin activity in focal adhesions and cell migration similarly to GGA2 depletion, indicating that both facilitate active β1-integrin recycling to the plasma membrane. Thus, GGA2 and RAB13 are important specificity determinants for integrin activity-dependent traffic.

Formin-like 2 Promotes β1-Integrin Trafficking and Invasive Motility Downstream of PKCα

Regulated turnover of integrin receptors is essential for cell adhesion and migration. Pathways selectively regulating β1-integrin recycling are implicated in cancer invasion and metastasis, yet proteins required for the internalization of this pro-invasive integrin remain to be identified. Here, we uncover formin-like 2 (FMNL2) as a critical regulator of β1-integrin internalization downstream of protein kinase C (PKC). PKCα associates with and phosphorylates FMNL2 at S1072 within its Diaphanous autoregulatory region, leading to the release of formin autoinhibition. Phosphorylation of FMNL2 triggers its rapid relocation and promotes its interaction with the cytoplasmic tails of the α-integrin subunits for β1-integrin endocytosis. FMNL2 drives β1-integrin internalization and invasive motility in a phosphorylation-dependent manner, while a FMNL2 mutant defective in actin assembly interferes with β1-integrin endocytosis and cancer cell invasion. Our data establish a role for FMNL2 in the regulation of β1-integrin and provide a mechanistic understanding of the function of FMNL2 in cancer invasiveness.

An RNAi screen identifies KIF15 as a novel regulator of the endocytic trafficking of integrin

α2β1 integrin is one of the most important collagen-binding receptors, and it has been implicated in numerous thrombotic and immune diseases. α2β1 integrin is a potent tumour suppressor, and its downregulation is associated with increased metastasis and poor prognosis in breast cancer. Currently, very little is known about the mechanism that regulates the cell-surface expression and trafficking of α2β1 integrin. Here, using a quantitative fluorescence-microscopy-based RNAi assay, we investigated the impact of 386 cytoskeleton-associated or -regulatory genes on α2 integrin endocytosis and found that 122 of these affected the intracellular accumulation of α2 integrin. Of these, 83 were found to be putative regulators of α2 integrin trafficking and/or expression, with no observed effect on the internalization of epidermal growth factor (EGF) or transferrin. Further interrogation and validation of the siRNA screen revealed a role for KIF15, a microtubule-based molecular motor, as a significant inhibitor of the endocytic trafficking of α2 integrin. Our data suggest a novel role for KIF15 in mediating plasma membrane localization of the alternative clathrin adaptor Dab2, thus impinging on pathways that regulate α2 integrin internalization.

Mutant p53-associated myosin-X upregulation promotes breast cancer invasion and metastasis

Mutations of the tumor suppressor TP53 are present in many forms of human cancer and are associated with increased tumor cell invasion and metastasis. Several mechanisms have been identified for promoting dissemination of cancer cells with TP53 mutations, including increased targeting of integrins to the plasma membrane. Here, we demonstrate a role for the filopodia-inducing motor protein Myosin-X (Myo10) in mutant p53-driven cancer invasion. Analysis of gene expression profiles from 2 breast cancer data sets revealed that MYO10 was highly expressed in aggressive cancer subtypes. Myo10 was required for breast cancer cell invasion and dissemination in multiple cancer cell lines and murine models of cancer metastasis. Evaluation of a Myo10 mutant without the integrin-binding domain revealed that the ability of Myo10 to transport β₁ integrins to the filopodia tip is required for invasion. Introduction of mutant p53 promoted Myo10 expression in cancer cells and pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma in mice, whereas suppression of endogenous mutant p53 attenuated Myo10 levels and cell invasion. In clinical breast carcinomas, Myo10 was predominantly expressed at the invasive edges and correlated with the presence of TP53 mutations and poor prognosis. These data indicate that Myo10 upregulation in mutant p53-driven cancers is necessary for invasion and that plasma-membrane protrusions, such as filopodia, may serve as specialized metastatic engines.

A functional genetic screen reveals new regulators of β1-integrin activity

β1 integrins constitute a large group of widely distributed adhesion receptors, which regulate the ability of cells to interact with their surroundings. This regulation of the expression and activity of integrins is crucial for tissue homeostasis and development and contributes to inflammation and cancer. We report an RNA interference screen to uncover genes involved in the regulation of β1-integrin activity using cell spot microarray technology in cancer cell lines. Altogether, ten cancer and two normal cell lines were used to identify regulators of β1 integrin activity. Cell biological analysis of the identified β1-integrin regulatory genes revealed that modulation of integrin activity can influence cell invasion in a three-dimensional matrix. We demonstrate with loss-of-function and rescue experiments that CD9 activates and MMP8 inactivates β1 integrins and that both proteins associate with β1 integrins in cells. Furthermore, CD9 and MMP8 regulate cancer cell extravasation in vivo. Our discovery of new regulators of β1-integrin activity highlight the complexity of integrin activity regulation and provide a set of new genes involved in regulation of integrin function.

Distinct recycling of active and inactive β1 integrins

Integrin trafficking plays an important role in cellular motility and cytokinesis. Integrins undergo constant endo/exocytic shuttling to facilitate the dynamic regulation of cell adhesion. Integrin activity toward the components of the extracellular matrix is regulated by the ability of these receptors to switch between active and inactive conformations. Several cellular signalling pathways have been described in the regulation of integrin traffic under different conditions. However, the interrelationship between integrin activity conformations and their endocytic fate have remained incompletely understood. Here, we have investigated the endocytic trafficking of active and inactive β1 integrins in cancer cells. Both conformers are endocytosed in a clathrin- and dynamin-dependent manner. The net endocytosis rate of the active β1 integrins is higher, whereas endocytosis of the inactive β1 integrin is counteracted by rapid recycling back to the plasma membrane via an ARF 6- and early endosome antigen 1-positive compartment in an Rab 4a- and actin-dependent manner. Owing to these distinct trafficking routes, the two receptor pools display divergent subcellular localization. At steady state, the inactive β1 integrin is mainly on the plasma membrane, whereas the active receptor is predominantly intracellular. These data provide new insights into the endocytic traffic of integrins and imply the possibility of a previously unappreciated crosstalk between pathways regulating integrin activity and traffic.

Filopodia and adhesion in cancer cell motility

Slender bundled actin containing plasma membrane protrusions, called filopodia, are important for many essential cellular processes like cell adhesion, migration, angiogenesis and the formation of cell-cell contacts. In migrating cells, filopodia are the pioneers at the leading edge which probe the environment for cues. Integrins are cell surface adhesion receptors critically implicated in cell migration and they are transported actively to filopodia tips by an unconventional myosin, myosin-X. Integrin mediated adhesion stabilizes filopodia and promotes cell migration even though integrins are not essential for filopodia initiation. Myosin-X binds also PIP3 and this regulates its activation and localization to filopodia. Filopodia stimulate cell migration in many cell types and increased filopodia density has been described in cancer. Furthermore, several proteins implicated in filopodia formation, like fascin, are also relevant for cancer progression. To investigate this further, we performed a meta-analysis of the expression profiles of 10 filopodia-linked genes in human breast cancer. These data implicated that several different filopodia inducing genes may contribute in a collective manner to cancer progression and the high metastasis rates associated with basal-type breast carcinomas.

PtdIns(3,4,5)P₃ is a regulator of myosin-X localization and filopodia formation

Phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate [PtdIns(3,4,5)P₃] is a key regulator of cell signaling that acts by recruiting proteins to the cell membrane, such as at the leading edge during cell migration. Here, we show that PtdIns (3,4,5)P₃ plays a central role in filopodia formation via the binding of myosin-X (Myo10), a potent promoter of filopodia. We found that the second pleckstrin homology domain (Myo10-PH2) of Myo10 specifically binds to PtdIns(3,4,5)P₃, and that disruption of this binding led to impairment of filopodia and partial re-localization of Myo10 to microtubule-associated Rab7-positive endosomal vesicles. Given that the localization of Myo10 was dynamically restored to filopodia upon reinstatement of PtdIns(3,4,5)P₃-binding, our results indicate that PtdIns(3,4,5)P₃ binding to the Myo10-PH2 domain is involved in Myo10 trafficking and regulation of filopodia dynamics.

Integrin trafficking regulated by Rab21 is necessary for cytokinesis

Adherent cells undergo remarkable changes in shape during cell division. However, the functional interplay between cell adhesion turnover and the mitotic machinery is poorly understood. The endo/exocytic trafficking of integrins is regulated by the small GTPase Rab21, which associates with several integrin alpha subunits. Here, we show that targeted trafficking of integrins to and from the cleavage furrow is required for successful cytokinesis, and that this is regulated by Rab21. Rab21 activity, integrin-Rab21 association, and integrin endocytosis are all necessary for normal cytokinesis, which becomes impaired when integrin-mediated adhesion at the cleavage furrow fails. We also describe a chromosomal deletion and loss of Rab21 gene expression in human cancer, which leads to the accumulation of multinucleate cells. Importantly, reintroduction of Rab21 rescued this phenotype. In conclusion, Rab21-regulated integrin trafficking is essential for normal cell division, and its defects may contribute to multinucleation and genomic instability, which are hallmarks of cancer.

Small GTPase Rab21 regulates cell adhesion and controls endosomal traffic of beta1-integrins

Dynamic turnover of integrin cell adhesion molecules to and from the cell surface is central to cell migration. We report for the first time an association between integrins and Rab proteins, which are small GTPases involved in the traffic of endocytotic vesicles. Rab21 (and Rab5) associate with the cytoplasmic domains of alpha-integrin chains, and their expression influences the endo/exocytic traffic of integrins. This function of Rab21 is dependent on its GTP/GDP cycle and proper membrane targeting. Knock down of Rab21 impairs integrin-mediated cell adhesion and motility, whereas its overexpression stimulates cell migration and cancer cell adhesion to collagen and human bone. Finally, overexpression of Rab21 fails to induce cell adhesion via an integrin point mutant deficient in Rab21 association. These data provide mechanistic insight into how integrins are targeted to intracellular compartments and how their traffic regulates cell adhesion.

Negative regulation of EGFR signalling through integrin-α1β1-mediated activation of protein tyrosine phosphatase TCPTP

Integrin-mediated cell adhesion regulates a multitude of cellular responses, including proliferation, survival and cross-talk between different cellular signalling pathways. So far, integrins have been mainly shown to convey permissive signals enabling anchorage-dependent receptor tyrosine kinase signalling. Here we show that a collagen-binding integrin alpha(1)beta(1) functions as a negative regulator of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signalling through the activation of a protein tyrosine phosphatase. The cytoplasmic tail of alpha(1) integrin selectively interacts with a ubiquitously expressed protein tyrosine phosphatase TCPTP (T-cell protein tyrosine phosphatase) and activates it after cell adhesion to collagen. The activation results in reduced EGFR phosphorylation after EGF stimulation. Introduction of the alpha(1) cytoplasmic domain peptide into cells induces phosphatase activation and inhibits EGF-induced cell proliferation and anchorage-independent growth of malignant cells. These data are the first demonstration of the regulation of TCPTP activity in vivo and represent a new molecular paradigm of integrin-mediated negative regulation of receptor tyrosine kinase signalling.