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Poirier S, Coeuret G, Champomier-Vergès MC, Desmonts MH, Werner D, Feurer C, Frémaux B, Guillou S, Luong NDM, Rué O, Loux V, Zagorec M, Chaillou S. Holistic integration of omics data reveals the drivers that shape the ecology of microbial meat spoilage scenarios. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1286661. [PMID: 37920261 PMCID: PMC10619683 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1286661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The use of omics data for monitoring the microbial flow of fresh meat products along a production line and the development of spoilage prediction tools from these data is a promising but challenging task. In this context, we produced a large multivariate dataset (over 600 samples) obtained on the production lines of two similar types of fresh meat products (poultry and raw pork sausages). We describe a full analysis of this dataset in order to decipher how the spoilage microbial ecology of these two similar products may be shaped differently depending on production parameter characteristics. Methods Our strategy involved a holistic approach to integrate unsupervised and supervised statistical methods on multivariate data (OTU-based microbial diversity; metabolomic data of volatile organic compounds; sensory measurements; growth parameters), and a specific selection of potential uncontrolled (initial microbiota composition) or controlled (packaging type; lactate concentration) drivers. Results Our results demonstrate that the initial microbiota, which is shown to be very different between poultry and pork sausages, has a major impact on the spoilage scenarios and on the effect that a downstream parameter such as packaging type has on the overall evolution of the microbial community. Depending on the process, we also show that specific actions on the pork meat (such as deboning and defatting) elicit specific food spoilers such as Dellaglioa algida, which becomes dominant during storage. Finally, ecological network reconstruction allowed us to map six different metabolic pathways involved in the production of volatile organic compounds involved in spoilage. We were able connect them to the different bacterial actors and to the influence of packaging type in an overall view. For instance, our results demonstrate a new role of Vibrionaceae in isopropanol production, and of Latilactobacillus fuchuensis and Lactococcus piscium in methanethiol/disylphide production. We also highlight a possible commensal behavior between Leuconostoc carnosum and Latilactobacillus curvatus around 2,3-butanediol metabolism. Conclusion We conclude that our holistic approach combined with large-scale multi-omic data was a powerful strategy to prioritize the role of production parameters, already known in the literature, that shape the evolution and/or the implementation of different meat spoilage scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Poirier
- INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Université Paris-Saclay, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Gwendoline Coeuret
- INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Université Paris-Saclay, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Olivier Rué
- INRAE, MaIAGE, Université Paris-Saclay, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Valentin Loux
- INRAE, MaIAGE, Université Paris-Saclay, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | | | - Stéphane Chaillou
- INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Université Paris-Saclay, Jouy-en-Josas, France
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2
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Guéraud F, Buisson C, Promeyrat A, Naud N, Fouché E, Bézirard V, Dupuy J, Plaisancié P, Héliès-Toussaint C, Trouilh L, Martin JL, Jeuge S, Keuleyan E, Petit N, Aubry L, Théodorou V, Frémaux B, Olier M, Caderni G, Kostka T, Nassy G, Santé-Lhoutellier V, Pierre F. Effects of sodium nitrite reduction, removal or replacement on cured and cooked meat for microbiological growth, food safety, colon ecosystem, and colorectal carcinogenesis in Fischer 344 rats. NPJ Sci Food 2023; 7:53. [PMID: 37805637 PMCID: PMC10560221 DOI: 10.1038/s41538-023-00228-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Epidemiological and experimental evidence indicated that processed meat consumption is associated with colorectal cancer risks. Several studies suggest the involvement of nitrite or nitrate additives via N-nitroso-compound formation (NOCs). Compared to the reference level (120 mg/kg of ham), sodium nitrite removal and reduction (90 mg/kg) similarly decreased preneoplastic lesions in F344 rats, but only reduction had an inhibitory effect on Listeria monocytogenes growth comparable to that obtained using the reference nitrite level and an effective lipid peroxidation control. Among the three nitrite salt alternatives tested, none of them led to a significant gain when compared to the reference level: vegetable stock, due to nitrate presence, was very similar to this reference nitrite level, yeast extract induced a strong luminal peroxidation and no decrease in preneoplastic lesions in rats despite the absence of NOCs, and polyphenol rich extract induced the clearest downward trend on preneoplastic lesions in rats but the concomitant presence of nitrosyl iron in feces. Except the vegetable stock, other alternatives were less efficient than sodium nitrite in reducing L. monocytogenes growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Françoise Guéraud
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Charline Buisson
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | | | - Nathalie Naud
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Edwin Fouché
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Valérie Bézirard
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Jacques Dupuy
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Pascale Plaisancié
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Cécile Héliès-Toussaint
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Lidwine Trouilh
- Plateforme Genome et Transcriptome (GeT-Biopuces), Toulouse Biotechnology Institute (TBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INRAE, INSA, 135 avenue de Rangueil, 31077, Toulouse, France
| | - Jean-Luc Martin
- IFIP-Institut Du Porc, La Motte au Vicomte, 35651, Le Rheu, France
| | - Sabine Jeuge
- IFIP-Institut Du Porc, La Motte au Vicomte, 35651, Le Rheu, France
| | - Eléna Keuleyan
- INRAE, UR370 QuaPA, 63122, Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
| | - Noémie Petit
- INRAE, UR370 QuaPA, 63122, Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
| | - Laurent Aubry
- INRAE, UR370 QuaPA, 63122, Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
| | - Vassilia Théodorou
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Bastien Frémaux
- IFIP-Institut Du Porc, La Motte au Vicomte, 35651, Le Rheu, France
| | - Maïwenn Olier
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Giovanna Caderni
- NEUROFARBA Department, Pharmacology and Toxicology Section, University of Florence, Viale Pieraccini 6, 50139, Florence, Italy
| | - Tina Kostka
- Institute of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Department of Food Development and Food Quality, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz University Hannover, Am Kleinen Felde 30, 30167, Hannover, Germany
- Division of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Department of Chemistry, RPTU Kaiserslautern-Landau, Erwin-Schroedinger-Str. 52, 67663, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Gilles Nassy
- IFIP-Institut Du Porc, La Motte au Vicomte, 35651, Le Rheu, France
| | | | - Fabrice Pierre
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France.
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3
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Coton M, Deniel F, Mounier J, Joubrel R, Robieu E, Pawtowski A, Jeuge S, Taminiau B, Daube G, Coton E, Frémaux B. Microbial Ecology of French Dry Fermented Sausages and Mycotoxin Risk Evaluation During Storage. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:737140. [PMID: 34803951 PMCID: PMC8601720 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.737140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Dry fermented sausages are produced worldwide by well-controlled fermentation processes involving complex microbiota including many bacterial and fungal species with key technological roles. However, to date, fungal diversity on sausage casings during storage has not been fully described. In this context, we studied the microbial communities from dry fermented sausages naturally colonized or voluntarily surface inoculated with molds during storage using both culture-dependent and metabarcoding methods. Staphylococci and lactic acid bacteria largely dominated in samples, although some halotolerant genera (e.g., Halomonas, Tetragenococcus, and Celerinatantimonas spp.) were also frequently observed. Fungal populations varied from 7.2 to 9.8 log TFU/cm2 sausage casing during storage, suggesting relatively low count variability among products. Fungal diversity identified on voluntarily inoculated casings was lower (dominated by Penicillium nalgiovense and Debaryomyces hansenii) than naturally environment-inoculated fermented sausages (colonized by P. nalgiovense, Penicillium nordicum, and other Penicillium spp. and sporadically by Scopulariopsis sp., D. hansenii, and Candida zeylanoïdes). P. nalgiovense and D. hansenii were systematically identified, highlighting their key technological role. The mycotoxin risk was then evaluated, and in situ mycotoxin production of selected mold isolates was determined during pilot-scale sausage productions. Among the identified fungal species, P. nalgiovense was confirmed not to produce mycotoxins. However, some P. nordicum, Penicillium chrysogenum, Penicillium bialowienzense, Penicillium brevicompactum, and Penicillium citreonigrum isolates produced one or more mycotoxins in vitro. P. nordicum also produced ochratoxin A during pilot-scale sausage productions using “worst-case” conditions in the absence of biotic competition. These data provide new knowledge on fermented sausage microbiota and the potential mycotoxin risk during storage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Coton
- Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, Univ Brest, Plouzané, France
| | - Franck Deniel
- Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, Univ Brest, Plouzané, France
| | - Jérôme Mounier
- Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, Univ Brest, Plouzané, France
| | - Rozenn Joubrel
- Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, Univ Brest, Plouzané, France
| | - Emeline Robieu
- IFIP French Pork Research Institute, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Audrey Pawtowski
- Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, Univ Brest, Plouzané, France
| | - Sabine Jeuge
- IFIP French Pork Research Institute, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Bernard Taminiau
- Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Laboratoire de Microbiologie des Denrées Alimentaires, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animal and Health (FARAH), Université de Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Georges Daube
- Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Laboratoire de Microbiologie des Denrées Alimentaires, Fundamental and Applied Research for Animal and Health (FARAH), Université de Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Emmanuel Coton
- Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversité et Ecologie Microbienne, Univ Brest, Plouzané, France
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Brauge T, Barre L, Leleu G, André S, Denis C, Hanin A, Frémaux B, Guilbaud M, Herry JM, Oulahal N, Anger B, Soumet C, Midelet G. European survey and evaluation of sampling methods recommended by the standard EN ISO 18593 for the detection of Listeria monocytogenes and Pseudomonas fluorescens on industrial surfaces. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2021; 367:5817843. [PMID: 32267937 PMCID: PMC7195815 DOI: 10.1093/femsle/fnaa057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The ready-to-eat products can be contaminated during processing by pathogen or spoilage bacteria, which persist in the industrial environment. Some bacterial species are able to form biofilms which protect them from environmental conditions. To check the bacterial contamination of the surfaces in the food industries, the professionals must regularly use surface sampling methods to detect the pathogen such as Listeria monocytogenes or the spoilage such as Pseudomonas fluorescens. In 2010, we designed and carried out a European survey to collect surface sampling information to detect or enumerate L. monocytogenes in food processing plants. A total of 137 questionnaires from 14 European Union Member States were returned. The outcome of this survey showed that the professionals preferred friction sampling methods with gauze pad, swab and sponges versus contact sampling methods. After this survey, we compared the effectiveness of these three friction sampling methods and the contact plates, as recommended in the standard EN ISO 18593 that was revised in 2018, on the recovery of L. monocytogenes and of P. fluorescens in mono-specie biofilms. This study showed no significant difference between the effectiveness of the four sampling methods to detach the viable and culturable bacterial population of theses mono-specie biofilms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Brauge
- ANSES, Laboratory for Food Safety, Bacteriology and parasitology of fishery and aquaculture products unit, Boulevard Bassin Napoléon 62200 Boulogne sur Mer, France
| | - Lena Barre
- ANSES, Laboratory for Food Safety, Salmonella - E. coli - Listeria unit, 14 Rue Pierre et Marie Curie 94700 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Guylaine Leleu
- ANSES, Laboratory for Food Safety, Bacteriology and parasitology of fishery and aquaculture products unit, Boulevard Bassin Napoléon 62200 Boulogne sur Mer, France
| | - Stéphane André
- CTCPA, Technical Centre for the Conservation of Agricultural Products, EMaiRIT'S Unit, 449 Avenue Clément Ader 84911 Avignon, France
| | - Catherine Denis
- ACTALIA, Food Safety, 310 Rue du Père Popiełujko 50000 Saint-Lô, France
| | - Aurélie Hanin
- ACTALIA, Food Safety, 310 Rue du Père Popiełujko 50000 Saint-Lô, France
| | - Bastien Frémaux
- IFIP, The French Research Institute for Pig and Pork Industry, 7 avenue du Général de Gaulle 94704 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Morgan Guilbaud
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, UMR SayFood 91300 Massy, France
| | - Jean-Marie Herry
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, UMR SayFood 91300 Massy, France
| | - Nadia Oulahal
- University of Lyon, Claude Bernard Lyon 1 University, Isara Lyon, BioDyMIA, Research Unit 3733, IUT Lyon 1, rue Henri de Boissieu 01000 Bourg en Bresse, France
| | - Béatrice Anger
- Anses, Fougeres Laboratory, Antibiotics, Biocides, Residues and Resistance Unit, Bâtiment Bioagopolis, 10 B rue Claude Bourgelat - Javené - CS 40608 - 35306 Fougères, France
| | - Christophe Soumet
- Anses, Fougeres Laboratory, Antibiotics, Biocides, Residues and Resistance Unit, Bâtiment Bioagopolis, 10 B rue Claude Bourgelat - Javené - CS 40608 - 35306 Fougères, France
| | - Graziella Midelet
- ANSES, Laboratory for Food Safety, Bacteriology and parasitology of fishery and aquaculture products unit, Boulevard Bassin Napoléon 62200 Boulogne sur Mer, France
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5
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Poirier S, Luong NDM, Anthoine V, Guillou S, Membré JM, Moriceau N, Rezé S, Zagorec M, Feurer C, Frémaux B, Jeuge S, Robieu E, Champomier-Vergès M, Coeuret G, Cauchie E, Daube G, Korsak N, Coroller L, Desriac N, Desmonts MH, Gohier R, Werner D, Loux V, Rué O, Dohollou MH, Defosse T, Chaillou S. Large-scale multivariate dataset on the characterization of microbiota diversity, microbial growth dynamics, metabolic spoilage volatilome and sensorial profiles of two industrially produced meat products subjected to changes in lactate concentration and packaging atmosphere. Data Brief 2020; 30:105453. [PMID: 32300619 PMCID: PMC7152715 DOI: 10.1016/j.dib.2020.105453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Revised: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/12/2020] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Data in this article provide detailed information on the diversity of bacterial communities present on 576 samples of raw pork or poultry sausages produced industrially in 2017. Bacterial growth dynamics and diversity were monitored throughout the refrigerated storage period to estimate the impact of packaging atmosphere and the use of potassium lactate as chemical preservative. The data include several types of analysis aiming at providing a comprehensive microbial ecology of spoilage during storage and how the process parameters do influence this phenomenon. The analysis includes: the gas content in packaging, pH, chromametric measurements, plate counts (total mesophilic aerobic flora and lactic acid bacteria), sensorial properties of the products, meta-metabolomic quantification of volatile organic compounds and bacterial community metagenetic analysis. Bacterial diversity was monitored using two types of amplicon sequencing (16S rRNA and GyrB encoding genes) at different time points for the different conditions (576 samples for gyrB and 436 samples for 16S rDNA). Sequencing data were generated by using Illumina MiSeq. The sequencing data have been deposited in the bioproject PRJNA522361. Samples accession numbers vary from SAMN10964863 to SAMN10965438 for gyrB amplicon and from SAMN10970131 to SAMN10970566 for 16S.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Poirier
- INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Carole Feurer
- IFIP-Institut du Porc, Maisons-Alfort et Le Rheu, France
| | | | - Sabine Jeuge
- IFIP-Institut du Porc, Maisons-Alfort et Le Rheu, France
| | - Emeline Robieu
- IFIP-Institut du Porc, Maisons-Alfort et Le Rheu, France
| | - Marie Champomier-Vergès
- INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Gwendoline Coeuret
- INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Emilie Cauchie
- Veterinary Medicine Faculty, Food Sciences, Université de Liège, FARAH, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Georges Daube
- Veterinary Medicine Faculty, Food Sciences, Université de Liège, FARAH, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Nicolas Korsak
- Veterinary Medicine Faculty, Food Sciences, Université de Liège, FARAH, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Louis Coroller
- Université de Bretagne Occidentale, EA3882 Lubem, Quimper, France
| | - Noémie Desriac
- Université de Bretagne Occidentale, EA3882 Lubem, Quimper, France
| | | | | | | | - Valentin Loux
- INRAE, MaIAGE, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France.,INRAE, BioinfOmics, MIGALE bioinformatics facility, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Olivier Rué
- INRAE, MaIAGE, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France.,INRAE, BioinfOmics, MIGALE bioinformatics facility, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | | | - Tatiana Defosse
- Cellule Recherche et Innovation, Groupe LDC, Sablé sur Sarthe, France
| | - Stéphane Chaillou
- INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
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6
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Soumet C, Méheust D, Pissavin C, Le Grandois P, Frémaux B, Feurer C, Le Roux A, Denis M, Maris P. Reduced susceptibilities to biocides and resistance to antibiotics in food-associated bacteria following exposure to quaternary ammonium compounds. J Appl Microbiol 2016; 121:1275-1281. [PMID: 27481186 DOI: 10.1111/jam.13247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2016] [Revised: 07/20/2016] [Accepted: 07/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Our aim was to assess the effects of step-wise exposure to didecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (DDAC) on the antimicrobial (antibiotics and biocides) susceptibilities of food-associated bacterial strains. METHODS AND RESULTS Adaptive responses of bacterial strains were investigated by exposing the strains daily to increasing subinhibitory concentrations of DDAC for 7 days. Following adaptation to DDAC, a threefold increase in the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values for this biocide was observed in 48% of the Escherichia coli and Listeria monocytogenes strains, and 3% of the Salmonella strains. Reduced susceptibility to other biocides was found with the most important increase in MIC for benzalkonium chloride (BC) and a commercial biocide formulation (Galox Horizon) containing DDAC and glutaraldehyde, for all species except Salmonella. Increase in antibiotic MIC values was more pronounced in E. coli in terms of antibiotic numbers and of magnitude (from 4- to 32-fold increase) and, to a lesser extent, in Salmonella strains. Most of these strains had acquired resistance to ampicillin, cefotaxime, ceftazidime, chloramphenicol and ciprofloxacin. CONCLUSIONS The effects of exposure to DDAC on biocides and antibiotics susceptibilities depend upon the bacteria species. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Extensive use of DDAC at subinhibitory concentrations may lead to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and may represent a public health issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Soumet
- Antibiotics, Biocides, Residues and Resistance Unit, Fougères Laboratory, ANSES, Fougères, France.
| | - D Méheust
- Biology Department, University of Rennes 1, IUT Saint-Brieuc, Saint-Brieuc, France
| | - C Pissavin
- Biology Department, University of Rennes 1, IUT Saint-Brieuc, Saint-Brieuc, France
| | - P Le Grandois
- Antibiotics, Biocides, Residues and Resistance Unit, Fougères Laboratory, ANSES, Fougères, France
| | - B Frémaux
- Department of Fresh and Processed Meat, IFIP, Maisons-Alfort, Le Rheu, France
| | - C Feurer
- Department of Fresh and Processed Meat, IFIP, Maisons-Alfort, Le Rheu, France
| | - A Le Roux
- Department of Fresh and Processed Meat, IFIP, Maisons-Alfort, Le Rheu, France
| | - M Denis
- Hygiene and Quality of Poultry and Pork Products Unit, Ploufragan-Plouzané Laboratory, ANSES, Ploufragan, France
| | - P Maris
- Antibiotics, Biocides, Residues and Resistance Unit, Fougères Laboratory, ANSES, Fougères, France
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