From ultrasound to microscopy: Actualities in thyroid investigation in cattle

Thyroid ultrasonography examination is widely used in human and small animal medicine. However, it has rarely been applied in cattle. The aim of this study was to determine whether the measurements of the thyroid gland by ultrasound examination correlate to those taken during post-mortem examination. A sample of 22 cows and 23 calves was selected for thyroid gland evaluation. An ultrasound scan was performed ante-mortem, followed by euthanasia (for medical reasons) or slaughtered in the food chain and the dissection of the thyroid gland was therefore performed. Post-mortem, the gland was weighed and its dimensions and volume measured. The volume and weight measurements were compared with the predicted ones on US using the formulas available in the literature. Finally, histological examination was performed on thyroid glands. The dimensions of the thyroid gland measured by ultrasonography were significantly different (p<0.05) from those observed post-mortem, except for lobe lengths in calves (p>0.1). However, in calves, there was no systematic bias between the ultrasound and post-mortem examination of the thyroid gland, which were concordant (with an average error of 18%). Cystic lesions were observed on ultrasound in 9/22 cows and could be found on histological examination in 7 of these. Other lesions, such as follicular hypoplasia and hyperplasia, were seen on histological examination but not on ultrasound. Although the ultrasound measurements did not significantly correlate with those taken post-mortem, this examination may allow to differentiate non-standard thyroids in the case of hyperplastic goiter, as demonstrated in other species. This study also describes and illustrates interesting lesions of the thyroid gland in cattle. These findings are innovative in the description of the use of thyroid ultrasound in cattle, although further studies are needed to allow deeper conclusions.

Evaluation of Blood Lactate, Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, and Shock Index, and Their Association with Prognosis in Calves

Diseases in young calves received as emergencies are often associated with hypovolemic and/or septic shocks. The objectives of our study were to (1) assess the correlation between clinical hemodynamic parameters and blood L-lactates (LAC), systolic blood pressure (SBP), and the shock index (SI) recorded upon arrival; and (2) to evaluate how these parameters were related to short-term outcomes in calves under 4 months of age presented as emergencies. We conducted a single-observer prospective observational study on calves aged from 1 day to 4 months, presented to the Veterinary Clinic for Ruminants of Liège from December 2020 to May 2022. Forty-five calves were included in the study. The statistical analysis revealed a significant correlation between LAC and heart rate (r = 0.570; p < 0.05) and LAC and SI (r = 0.373; p < 0.05). A high LAC value at admission was significantly associated with a negative outcome (death) (p < 0.05). In calves suffering from obstructive digestive diseases, the SI was related to the outcome and the analysis indicated a cut-off value of 1.13 (Se = 0.77, Spe = 1). In conclusion, in our study, the initial blood L-lactate value was correlated with heart rate, the shock index, and the clinical shock score, and admission hyperlactatemia was associated with a poor prognosis in calves under 4 months of age. In this cohort, the shock index in calves suffering from digestive diseases was linked with mortality.

Oak Acorn Poisoning in Cattle during Autumn 2022: A Case Series and Review of the Current Knowledge

Oak poisoning is a known intoxication in grazing animals, but is slightly described in the literature. This case report describes 7 cattle from 3 different farms admitted to the clinic for ruminants of the University of Liège for suspected acorn poisoning in the autumn of 2022. The clinical signs were, anorexia, apathy with polyuria with low density. Further investigations led to the diagnosis of renal failure (blood urea 162 ± 88 mg/dL; blood creatinine 12 ± 4 mg/L). Supportive treatment, based on infusions (NaCl 0.9%) and electrolyte rebalancing, was administered and renal values were assessed every 24-48 h. Of these animals, 5/7 were euthanized. At necropsy, digestive erosions and ulcerations, oedema and renal hemorrhages, between the pyloric/caliceal cavity and the medulla were observed. Histopathological examination revealed necrosis of the renal tubules. The renal values of the two remaining animals were reduced, their general condition improved, and they were discharged. Acorn poisoning is a serious disease with no specific antidote or characteristic symptoms. Animals are identified as sick too late, when renal failure is already established. Farmers should be made more aware in order to prevent exposure, especially in years when acorns are abundant. Furthermore, there is no antidote for this intoxication.

Anti-Schmallenberg Virus Activities of Type I/III Interferons-Induced Mx1 GTPases from Different Mammalian Species

Mx proteins are key factors of the innate intracellular defense mechanisms that act against viruses induced by type I/III interferons. The family Peribunyaviridae includes many viruses of veterinary importance, either because infection results in clinical disease or because animals serve as reservoirs for arthropod vectors. According to the evolutionary arms race hypothesis, evolutionary pressures should have led to the selection of the most appropriate Mx1 antiviral isoforms to resist these infections. Although human, mouse, bat, rat, and cotton rat Mx isoforms have been shown to inhibit different members of the Peribunyaviridae, the possible antiviral function of the Mx isoforms from domestic animals against bunyaviral infections has, to our knowledge, never been studied. Herein, we investigated the anti-Schmallenberg virus activity of bovine, canine, equine, and porcine Mx1 proteins. We concluded that Mx1 has a strong, dose-dependent anti-Schmallenberg activity in these four mammalian species.

An obstructive upper respiratory emergency in a pregnant Belgian blue heifer

In this case report, the surgical intervention and aftercare are described of an upper airway obstruction in a two-and-a-half year old, seven-months pregnant Belgian blue heifer. The animal had been referred to the Clinic for Ruminants (University of Liège) for complaints of stridor and dyspnea and suffered from necrotic laryngitis, complicated by the formation of an obstructive granuloma. Emergency tracheotomy was performed to save the life of the cow and its calf. Through the use of a self-retaining cannula, the modified tracheotomy site could be kept patent until the calf was born and the pathology resolved two months after admission. Healing of the larynx was checked and documented by use of nasal and retro-tracheal endoscopy.

Antimicrobial Susceptibility Profile of Several Bacteria Species Identified in the Peritoneal Exudate of Cows Affected by Parietal Fibrinous Peritonitis after Caesarean Section

The aim of this study was to identify the species and antimicrobial susceptibility of bacteria involved in parietal fibrinous peritonitis (PFP). We studied 156 peritoneal fluid samples from cows presenting PFP after caesarean section. Bacteria were cultured in selective media and their antimicrobial susceptibility was tested by disk diffusion assay. Bacteria were isolated in the majority (129/156; 83%) of samples. The majority (82/129; 63%) of positive samples contained one dominant species, while two or more species were cultured in 47/129 (36%) samples. Trueperella pyogenes (T. Pyogenes) (107 strains) was the most identified species, followed by Escherichia coli (E. coli) (38 strains), Proteus mirabilis (P. mirabilis) (6 strains), and Clostridium perfringens (C. perfringens) (6 strains). Several other species were sporadically identified. Antimicrobial susceptibility was tested in 59/185 strains, predominantly E. coli (38 strains) and P. mirabilis (6 strains). Antibiotic resistance, including resistance to molecules of critical importance, was commonly observed; strains were classified as weakly drug resistant (22/59; 37%), multidrug resistant (24/59; 41%), extensively drug resistant (12/59; 20%), or pan-drug resistant (1/59; 2%). In conclusion, extensive antibiotic resistance in the isolated germs might contribute to treatment failure. Ideally, antimicrobial therapy of PFP should be based upon bacterial culture and susceptibility testing.

Schmallenberg virus, cyclical reemergence in the core region: A seroepidemiologic study in wild cervids, Belgium, 2012-2017

Schmallenberg virus emerged in 2011 in Europe. The epicentre of primordial spreading was the region straddling Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium. One of the key questions is whether the newcomer would establish a lasting presence on the continent. The apparent seroprevalence in southern Belgium wild deer populations was followed for 6 years. Two years of intense circulation were revealed, 2012 and 2016, characterized by a peak seroprevalence in the two studied populations (Capreolus capreolus and Cervus elaphus). Between the peak years and after 2016, apparent seroprevalences declined rapidly among adults and became nil among juveniles. The general pattern of apparent seroprevalence evolution observed is consistent with a cyclic circulation of Schmallenberg virus, similar to what is observed for other Orthobunyaviruses in endemic areas. These data also suggest that wild cervids play no central role in the circulation dynamics of the virus.

Comparison between generalised peritonitis and parietal fibrinous peritonitis in cows after caesarean section

BACKGROUND

Parietal fibrinous peritonitis (PFP) and generalised peritonitis (GP) are two postoperative complications in cows, characterised by fluid and fibrin accumulation throughout the peritoneum (GP) or in an encapsulated cavity (PFP). Unlike GP, PFP is scarcely documented.

METHODS

Twenty-one GP cases and 12 PFP cases were confirmed by ultrasound in cows referred to the Veterinary Clinic (Liège University) for complications after caesarean section. All cows underwent a standardised examination protocol. Blood samples were analysed for metabolic and inflammatory markers. Bacteriology was performed on peritoneal fluid samples. Treatment consisted of surgical drainage of the abdominal cavity (GP) or the encapsulated cavity (PFP). Variables concerning anamnesis, clinical findings and treatment outcomes were compared.

RESULTS

Perioperative complications had occurred in 9/21 GP cows but 0/12 PFP cows (P<0.05). Biochemical analysis indicated pronounced inflammation and did not differ between groups. Peritoneal fluid samples of both groups were contaminated and contained similar bacteria (Trueperella pyogenes and Escherichia coli). While 11/12 PFP cows were discharged, all patients with GP died or were euthanased (P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

We hypothesise that PFP and GP are two different manifestations of perioperative peritoneal contamination. The severity and spread of the contamination determine the clinical presentation and the prognosis.

Prophylactic antibiotic usage by Belgian veterinarians during elective caesarean section in Belgian blue cattle

The use of prophylactic antibiotics in veterinary surgery reduces the occurrence of postoperative complications. In order to limit the development of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria and to maximize therapy efficacy, antibiotics should be used prudently and efficiently. A survey was sent to Wallonian rural veterinarians in order to assess the use of antibiotics before, during and after bovine elective caesarean section, the most common surgical procedure in Belgian rural practice. Results were analysed in the light of the current guidelines formulated by the Belgian Centre of Expertise on Antimicrobial Consumption and Resistance in Animals. Among 380 contacted veterinarians, 113 answered the survey. All veterinarians use antibiotics during caesarean section. Veterinarians predominantly use penicillin as the first drug of choice, whereas a minority use drugs considered as second or third choice, such as amoxicillin, oxytetracyclin or lincomycin-spectinomycin. Also, 31/113 veterinarians simultaneously use molecules from different antibiotic classes. The majority (100/113) of veterinarians inject antibiotics during or after surgery, while a minority (13/113) administer antibiotics preoperatively. Most veterinarians (67/113) limit the duration of their antibiotic treatment to 1 day. Considering the administration route, most veterinarians (88/113) systematically use the intraperitoneal injection route, which is not registered. Intramuscular injection and injection between muscle layers during surgery are carried out by 82/113 and 43/113 respondents, respectively. Twenty-two respondents apply intra-uterine antibiotics. Most veterinarians (87/113) combine several administration routes. The dosage of antibiotics varies enormously and excessive injection volumes are common, especially when multiple injection routes are combined. Our results show a striking lack of consistency in the antibiotic therapy during elective CS by rural veterinarians. Whereas the drug of choice and the treatment duration were largely in line with the current guidelines, this is certainly not the case for the dosage and the administration route. The intraperitoneal injection of antibiotics cannot be justified. Incorrect dosage of antibiotics should be avoided at all cost. The use of second and third line molecules and the simultaneous use of different antibiotic classes should be discouraged. A major challenge lies in the education of veterinary students and the sensitization of practitioners to avoid or unlearn unnecessary habits concerning antibiotic use. Finally, more clinical trials are needed in order to refine the current guidelines for antibiotic use and to determine the optimal drug of choice, treatment moment and application route in elective caesarean section in cattle.

Host-dependence of in vitro reassortment dynamics among the Sathuperi and Shamonda Simbuviruses

Orthobunyaviruses are arboviruses (Arthropod Borne Virus) and possess multipartite genomes made up of three negative RNAs corresponding to the small (S), medium (M) and large (L) segments. Reassortment and recombination are evolutionary driving forces of such segmented viruses and lead to the emergence of new strains and species. Retrospective studies based on phylogenetical analysis are able to evaluate these mechanisms at the end of the selection process but fail to address the dynamics of emergence. This issue was addressed using two Orthobunyaviruses infecting ruminants and belonging to the Simbu serogroup: the Sathuperi virus (SATV) and the Shamonda virus (SHAV). Both viruses were associated with abortion, stillbirth and congenital malformations occurring after transplacental transmission and were suspected to spread together in different ruminant and insect populations. This study showed that different viruses related to SHAV and SATV are spreading simultaneously in ruminants and equids of the Sub-Saharan region. Their reassortment and recombination potential was evaluated in mammalian and in insect contexts. A method was set up to determine the genomic background of any clonal progeny viruses isolated after in vitro coinfections assays. All the reassortment combinations were generated in both contexts while no recombinant virus was isolated. Progeny virus populations revealed a high level of reassortment in mammalian cells and a much lower level in insect cells. In vitro selection pressure that mimicked the host switching (insect-mammal) revealed that the best adapted reassortant virus was connected with an advantageous replicative fitness and with the presence of a specific segment.

The role of roughage provision on the absorption and disposition of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol and its acetylated derivatives in calves: from field observations to toxicokinetics

A clinical case in Belgium demonstrated that feeding a feed concentrate containing considerable levels of deoxynivalenol (DON, 1.13 mg/kg feed) induced severe liver failure in 2- to 3-month-old beef calves. Symptoms disappeared by replacing the highly contaminated corn and by stimulating ruminal development via roughage administration. A multi-mycotoxin contamination was demonstrated in feed samples collected at 15 different veal farms in Belgium. DON was most prevalent, contaminating 80% of the roughage samples (mixed straw and maize silage; average concentration in positives: 637 ± 621 µg/kg, max. 1818 µg/kg), and all feed concentrate samples (411 ± 156 µg/kg, max. 693 µg/kg). In order to evaluate the impact of roughage provision and its associated ruminal development on the gastro-intestinal absorption and biodegradation of DON and its acetylated derivatives (3- and 15-ADON) in calves, a toxicokinetic study was performed with two ruminating and two non-ruminating male calves. Animals received in succession a bolus of DON (120 µg/kg bodyweight (BW)), 15-ADON (50 µg/kg BW), and 3-ADON (25 µg/kg) by intravenous (IV) injection or per os (PO) in a cross-over design. The absolute oral bioavailability of DON was much higher in non-ruminating calves (50.7 ± 33.0%) compared to ruminating calves (4.1 ± 4.5%). Immediately following exposure, 3- and 15-ADON were hydrolysed to DON in ruminating calves. DON and its acetylated metabolites were mainly metabolized to DON-3-glucuronide, however, also small amounts of DON-15-glucuronide were detected in urine. DON degradation to deepoxy-DON (DOM-1) was only observed to a relevant extent in ruminating calves. Consequently, toxicity of DON in calves is closely related to roughage provision and the associated stage of ruminal development.

Prevalence of Angiostrongylus vasorum in southern Belgium, a coprological and serological survey

Background

Canine angiostrongylosis, a gastropod-borne helminthic infection, is increasingly being described in North America and is now reported in many European countries. In dogs, Angiostrongylus vasorum may cause a wide spectrum of clinical signs. Respiratory distress such as coughing and dyspnoea are the most frequently described manifestations. The aim of the present study was to gain additional information on the distribution, prevalence and risk factors associated with A. vasorum infection in dog from southern Belgium through the combined used of a commercially available in-clinic assay for detection of circulating antigen (Angio Detect™, IDEXX, Westbrook, USA) and coprology in two different canine populations: dogs with clinical signs compatible with angiostrongylosis and asymptomatic dogs or dogs presented for unrelated conditions (control).

Results

A total of 979 dogs were enrolled in the study from November 2014 until February 2016. Seven hundred fifty-seven dogs were included in the control group, whereas 222 dogs had clinical signs compatible with angiostrongylosis. Forty-six dogs out of 979 (4.7 %) had A. vasorum circulating antigen. There was a highly significant difference between the two populations (3.6 % (27/747) and 8.6 % (19/222) in control and symptomatic dogs, respectively) (P = 0.00379). First stage larvae (L1) of A. vasorum were found in seven out of 24 serologically positive control dogs and in six out of 17 serologically positive symptomatic dogs. Interestingly, L1 of Crenosoma vulpis were detected by Baermann technique in one control and nine symptomatic dogs, respectively. Out of 17 Angio Detect™ (IDEXX, Westbrook, USA) positive dogs with negative (14) or not performed Baermann test (three), one dog was positive in both in-house ELISAs (Ag and Ab) and one dog was positive for Ag. Statistical analysis was unable to detect any risk factors associated with the direct and/or indirect detection of A. vasorum.

Conclusions

This seroepidemiological study demonstrated for the first time a high seroprevalence in Southern Belgium for A. vasorum. The Angio Detect™ was found to be suitable in this context as the collection, preservation and examination of stools were difficult. Nevertheless, discrepancies were observed between the different available tests. Additional research is clearly needed. Also, coproscopy remains a very useful tool in dogs infected for less than nine weeks and for the identification of other canine lung nematodes such as C. vulpis. This study also demonstrates that asymptomatic dogs may shed A. vasorum L1 in their faeces and therefore contribute to the maintenance of A. vasorum life-cycle.

Soluble forms of CD46 are detected in Bos taurus plasma and neutralize BVDV, the bovine pestivirus

The pestivirus bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) is known to bind to the CD46 molecule, which subsequently promotes entry of the virus. Mapping of the BVD-virion-binding site has shown that two peptides, 66EQIV69 and 82GQVLAL87, located on antiparallel beta sheets in the most distal complement control protein module (CCP1), provide the attachment platform. In the present study, we reveal new CD46-encoding transcripts that are predicted to encode CCP1-containing soluble forms. Further, we show that the serum of most adult cattle contains soluble CD46 (sCD46) and that a recombinant soluble isoform neutralizes BVDV infectivity in an in vitro assay. We have then established an ELISA for determination of plasma sCD46 in a large cohort of animals. Overall, serum sCD46 amounts to 8±18ng/mL (mean±SD, n=440), with a IC [95-105] ranging from 6,4 to 9,8ng/mL and extreme values ​​between 0 and 178ng/mL. We found that sCD46 is not detectable in fetal and neonatal sera and that its plasma concentration increases progressively up to adulthood. We also detected high- and low-sCD46 performers and show that this phenotype does not depend of environment. As modern rearing techniques make it possible to disseminate genetically-determined phenotypes very quickly in a population, a large-scale study examining whether high-sCD46 animals provide epidemiological protection against BVDV infection and transmission should be undertaken.

Natural intrauterine infection with Schmallenberg virus in malformed newborn calves

We surveyed morphologic alterations in calves in Belgium that were naturally infected in utero by Schmallenberg virus (SBV) and born with deformities during January–March 2012. SBV-specific RNA was distributed unevenly in different tissues. Natural intrauterine SBV infection of calves might cause serious damage to the central nervous system and muscles.

Feline panleukopenia virus in cerebral neurons of young and adult cats

Background

Perinatal infections with feline panleukopenia virus (FPV) have long been known to be associated with cerebellar hypoplasia in kittens due to productive infection of dividing neuroblasts. FPV, like other parvoviruses, requires dividing cells to replicate which explains the usual tropism of the virus for the digestive tract, lymphoid tissues and bone marrow in older animals.

Results

In this study, the necropsy and histopathological analyses of a series of 28 cats which died from parvovirus infection in 2013 were performed. Infections were confirmed by real time PCR and immunohistochemistry in several organs. Strikingly, while none of these cats showed cerebellar atrophy or cerebellar positive immunostaining, some of them, including one adult, showed a bright positive immunostaining for viral antigens in cerebral neurons (diencephalon). Furthermore, infected neurons were negative by immunostaining for p27^Kip1, a cell cycle regulatory protein, while neighboring, uninfected, neurons were positive, suggesting a possible re-entry of infected neurons into the mitotic cycle. Next-Generation Sequencing and PCR analyses showed that the virus infecting cat brains was FPV and presented a unique substitution in NS1 protein sequence. Given the role played by this protein in the control of cell cycle and apoptosis in other parvoviral species, it is tempting to hypothesize that a cause-to-effect between this NS1 mutation and the capacity of this FPV strain to infect neurons in adult cats might exist.

Conclusions

This study provides the first evidence of infection of cerebral neurons by feline panleukopenia virus in cats, including an adult. A possible re-entry into the cell cycle by infected neurons has been observed. A mutation in the NS1 protein sequence of the FPV strain involved could be related to its unusual cellular tropism. Further research is needed to clarify this point.

Risk factors and effect of selective removal on retroviral infections prevalence in Belgian stray cats

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of several risk/protective factors and predictors on the prevalence of feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) and feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) infections in 302 stray cats captured during a trap-neuter-release programme in a mixed urban-rural area from Belgium, from 2010 to 2012. The impact of selective removal of FIV-positive cats on the apparent prevalence in the remaining population over this three-year period was also assessed. The seroprevalences over three years were 18.8 per cent for FIV and 0.7 per cent for FeLV. For FIV, the seroprevalence decreased significantly from the first year of the programme (2010; 30.5 per cent) to the last (2012; 13.1 per cent). Sex (male) and age (adult and old cats) were risk factors, while the year of sampling (years 2011 and 2012) was a protective factor. Age, sex and location were the most relevant predictors of FIV status. The data presented in this study revealed a very high FIV seroprevalence in Belgian stray cats, while FeLV was almost absent. The selective removal of positive cats had a drastic effect on the FIV seroprevalence in the remaining cat population.

A stop-gain in the laminin, alpha 3 gene causes recessive junctional epidermolysis bullosa in Belgian Blue cattle

Four newborn purebred Belgian Blue calves presenting a severe form of epidermolysis bullosa were recently referred to our heredo-surveillance platform. SNP array genotyping followed by autozygosity mapping located the causative gene in a 8.3-Mb interval on bovine chromosome 24. Combining information from (i) whole-genome sequencing of an affected calf, (ii) transcriptomic data from a panel of tissues and (iii) a list of functionally ranked positional candidates pinpointed a private G to A nucleotide substitution in the LAMA3 gene that creates a premature stop codon (p.Arg2609*) in exon 60, truncating 22% of the corresponding protein. The LAMA3 gene encodes the alpha 3 subunit of the heterotrimeric laminin-332, a key constituent of the lamina lucida that is part of the skin basement membrane connecting epidermis and dermis layers. Homozygous loss-of-function mutations in this gene are known to cause severe junctional epidermolysis bullosa in human, mice, horse, sheep and dog. Overall, our data strongly support the causality of the identified gene and mutation.

Rational development of an attenuated recombinant cyprinid herpesvirus 3 vaccine using prokaryotic mutagenesis and in vivo bioluminescent imaging

Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3) is causing severe economic losses worldwide in common and koi carp industries, and a safe and efficacious attenuated vaccine compatible with mass vaccination is needed. We produced single deleted recombinants using prokaryotic mutagenesis. When producing a recombinant lacking open reading frame 134 (ORF134), we unexpectedly obtained a clone with additional deletion of ORF56 and ORF57. This triple deleted recombinant replicated efficiently in vitro and expressed an in vivo safety/efficacy profile compatible with use as an attenuated vaccine. To determine the role of the double ORF56-57 deletion in the phenotype and to improve further the quality of the vaccine candidate, a series of deleted recombinants was produced and tested in vivo. These experiments led to the selection of a double deleted recombinant lacking ORF56 and ORF57 as a vaccine candidate. The safety and efficacy of this strain were studied using an in vivo bioluminescent imaging system (IVIS), qPCR, and histopathological examination, which demonstrated that it enters fish via skin infection similar to the wild type strain. However, compared to the parental wild type strain, the vaccine candidate replicated at lower levels and spread less efficiently to secondary sites of infection. Transmission experiments allowing water contamination with or without additional physical contact between fish demonstrated that the vaccine candidate has a reduced ability to spread from vaccinated fish to naïve sentinel cohabitants. Finally, IVIS analyses demonstrated that the vaccine candidate induces a protective mucosal immune response at the portal of entry. Thus, the present study is the first to report the rational development of a recombinant attenuated vaccine against CyHV-3 for mass vaccination of carp. We also demonstrated the relevance of the CyHV-3 carp model for studying alloherpesvirus transmission and mucosal immunity in teleost skin.

Common carp, and its colorful ornamental variety koi, is one of the most economically valuable species in aquaculture. Since the late 1990s, the common and koi carp culture industries have suffered devastating worldwide losses due to cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3). In the present study, we report the development of an attenuated recombinant vaccine against CyHV-3. Two genes were deleted from the viral genome, leading to a recombinant virus that is no longer capable of causing the disease but can be propagated in cell culture (for vaccine production) and infect fish when added to the water, thereby immunizing the fish. This attenuated recombinant vaccine also had a drastic defect in spreading from vaccinated to non-vaccinated cohabitant fish. The vaccine induced a protective mucosal immune response capable of preventing the entry of virulent CyHV-3 and is compatible with the simultaneous vaccination of a large number of carp by simply immersing the fish in water containing the vaccine. This vaccine represents a promising tool for controlling the most dreadful disease ever encountered by the carp culture industries. In addition, the present study highlights the importance of the CyHV-3 - carp model for studying alloherpesvirus transmission and mucosal immunity in teleost skin.

First report of a fatal autochthonous canine Angiostrongylus vasorum infection in Belgium

Canine angiostrongylosis is considered as an emergent disease in Europe and Canada. A fatal case of Angiostrongylus vasorum infection is described in a four and a half month old puppy born in Belgium. The dog was presented with marked neurological disorders, body weight loss, a profound weakness and mild respiratory signs. The dog was given antibiotics and mucolytic compounds with very little improvement and consequently was referred to a specialist for additional examinations. As the general condition of the dog was rapidly declining, the animal was euthanized shortly after on its owners' request and a necropsy was carried out. Extensive gross pulmonary lesions were observed and histopathological examination revealed the presence of numerous larvae with morphology compatible with A. vasorum. Larvae were also found in the product of a bronchoalveolar lavage but fecal material was not examined. The presence of A. vasorum circulating serum antigen was demonstrated through ELISA; additionally an A. vasorum specific PCR was performed on brain material and yielded a positive result. This case confirms that the clinical diagnosis of canine angiostrongylosis can be very challenging especially when respiratory signs are absent or very mild such in the present case. This is the first reported case of canine angiostrongylosis in Belgium.

Schmallenberg virus in domestic cattle, Belgium, 2012

To determine prevalence of antibodies against Schmallenberg virus in adult cows and proportion of infection transmitted to fetuses, we tested serum samples from 519 cow/calf pairs in Belgium in spring 2012. Of cattle within 250 km of location where the virus emerged, ≈91% tested positive for IgG targeting nucleoprotein. Risk for fetal infection was ≈28%.

Schmallenberg virus: a new Shamonda/Sathuperi-like virus on the rise in Europe

In the summer-fall of 2011, a nonspecific febrile syndrome characterized by hyperthermia, drop in milk production and watery diarrhea was reported in adult dairy cows from a series of farms located in North-West Europe. Further, in November 2011, an enzootic outbreak of abortion, stillbirth and birth at term of lambs, kids and calves with neurologic signs and/or head, spine or limb malformations emerged throughout several European countries. Both syndromes were associated with the presence in the blood (adults) or in the central nervous system (newborns) of the genome of a new Shamonda-Sathuperi reassortant orthobunyavirus provisionally named Schmallenberg virus after the place where the first positive samples were collected. The clinical, pathological, virological and epidemiological facts that were made publicly available during the first 6 months after the emergence are presented here. Current knowledge of the epidemiology of the phylogenetically closest relatives of the newcomer (Shamonda, Sathuperi, Aino and Akabane viruses) is not exhaustive enough to predict whether the current outbreak of Schmallenberg virus is the prelude to endemicity or to a 2 years long outbreak before the infection burns out when serologically naïve animals are no longer available. In the future, cyclic epizootic reemergences are a possibility too, either synchronized with a global decrease of herd immunity or due to antigenic variants escaping the immunity acquired against their predecessors. The latter hypothesis seems unlikely because of the wide array of biologic constraints acting on the genome of viruses whose life cycle requires transmission by a vector, which represses genetic drift. The remarkable stability of the Shamonda virus genome over the last forty years is reassuring in this regard.