1
|
Gaballa A, Gebhardt-Wolf A, Krenz B, Mattavelli G, John M, Cossa G, Andreani S, Schülein-Völk C, Montesinos F, Vidal R, Kastner C, Ade CP, Kneitz B, Gasteiger G, Gallant P, Rosenfeldt M, Riedel A, Eilers M. PAF1c links S-phase progression to immune evasion and MYC function in pancreatic carcinoma. Nat Commun 2024; 15:1446. [PMID: 38365788 PMCID: PMC10873513 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-45760-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024] Open
Abstract
In pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), endogenous MYC is required for S-phase progression and escape from immune surveillance. Here we show that MYC in PDAC cells is needed for the recruitment of the PAF1c transcription elongation complex to RNA polymerase and that depletion of CTR9, a PAF1c subunit, enables long-term survival of PDAC-bearing mice. PAF1c is largely dispensable for normal proliferation and regulation of MYC target genes. Instead, PAF1c limits DNA damage associated with S-phase progression by being essential for the expression of long genes involved in replication and DNA repair. Surprisingly, the survival benefit conferred by CTR9 depletion is not due to DNA damage, but to T-cell activation and restoration of immune surveillance. This is because CTR9 depletion releases RNA polymerase and elongation factors from the body of long genes and promotes the transcription of short genes, including MHC class I genes. The data argue that functionally distinct gene sets compete for elongation factors and directly link MYC-driven S-phase progression to tumor immune evasion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Abdallah Gaballa
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biologyy, Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, Julius Maximilian University Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Anneli Gebhardt-Wolf
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biologyy, Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, Julius Maximilian University Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Bastian Krenz
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biologyy, Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, Julius Maximilian University Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
- Mildred Scheel Early Career Center, University Hospital Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2, 97080, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Greta Mattavelli
- Mildred Scheel Early Career Center, University Hospital Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2, 97080, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Mara John
- Mildred Scheel Early Career Center, University Hospital Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2, 97080, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Giacomo Cossa
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biologyy, Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, Julius Maximilian University Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Silvia Andreani
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biologyy, Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, Julius Maximilian University Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Christina Schülein-Völk
- Core Unit High-Content Microscopy, Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, Julius Maximilian University Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Francisco Montesinos
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biologyy, Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, Julius Maximilian University Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Raphael Vidal
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biologyy, Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, Julius Maximilian University Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken, University Hospital Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2, 97080, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Carolin Kastner
- Mildred Scheel Early Career Center, University Hospital Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2, 97080, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Carsten P Ade
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biologyy, Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, Julius Maximilian University Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Burkhard Kneitz
- Department of Urology and Pediatric Urology, University Hospital Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2, 97080, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Georg Gasteiger
- Würzburg Institute of Systems Immunology, Max Planck Research Group, Julius Maximilian University Würzburg, Versbacher Str. 9, 97078, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Peter Gallant
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biologyy, Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, Julius Maximilian University Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Mathias Rosenfeldt
- Institute of Pathology, Julius Maximilian University Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2, 97080, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Angela Riedel
- Mildred Scheel Early Career Center, University Hospital Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2, 97080, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Martin Eilers
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biologyy, Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, Julius Maximilian University Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany.
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken, University Hospital Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 2, 97080, Würzburg, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Fischer T, Hartmann O, Reissland M, Prieto-Garcia C, Klann K, Pahor N, Schülein-Völk C, Baluapuri A, Polat B, Abazari A, Gerhard-Hartmann E, Kopp HG, Essmann F, Rosenfeldt M, Münch C, Flentje M, Diefenbacher ME. PTEN mutant non-small cell lung cancer require ATM to suppress pro-apoptotic signalling and evade radiotherapy. Cell Biosci 2022; 12:50. [PMID: 35477555 PMCID: PMC9044846 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-022-00778-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Despite advances in treatment of patients with non-small cell lung cancer, carriers of certain genetic alterations are prone to failure. One such factor frequently mutated, is the tumor suppressor PTEN. These tumors are supposed to be more resistant to radiation, chemo- and immunotherapy. Results We demonstrate that loss of PTEN led to altered expression of transcriptional programs which directly regulate therapy resistance, resulting in establishment of radiation resistance. While PTEN-deficient tumor cells were not dependent on DNA-PK for IR resistance nor activated ATR during IR, they showed a significant dependence for the DNA damage kinase ATM. Pharmacologic inhibition of ATM, via KU-60019 and AZD1390 at non-toxic doses, restored and even synergized with IR in PTEN-deficient human and murine NSCLC cells as well in a multicellular organotypic ex vivo tumor model. Conclusion PTEN tumors are addicted to ATM to detect and repair radiation induced DNA damage. This creates an exploitable bottleneck. At least in cellulo and ex vivo we show that low concentration of ATM inhibitor is able to synergise with IR to treat PTEN-deficient tumors in genetically well-defined IR resistant lung cancer models.
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13578-022-00778-7.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Fischer
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Protein Stability and Cancer Group, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.,Comprehensive Cancer Centre Mainfranken, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Oliver Hartmann
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Protein Stability and Cancer Group, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.,Mildred Scheel Early Career Center, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Michaela Reissland
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Protein Stability and Cancer Group, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.,Mildred Scheel Early Career Center, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Cristian Prieto-Garcia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Protein Stability and Cancer Group, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.,Mildred Scheel Early Career Center, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Kevin Klann
- Protein Quality Control Group, Institute of Biochemistry II, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Nikolett Pahor
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Protein Stability and Cancer Group, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.,Mildred Scheel Early Career Center, Würzburg, Germany
| | | | - Apoorva Baluapuri
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Cancer Systems Biology Group, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Bülent Polat
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.,Comprehensive Cancer Centre Mainfranken, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Arya Abazari
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Elena Gerhard-Hartmann
- Comprehensive Cancer Centre Mainfranken, Würzburg, Germany.,Institute for Pathology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | | | - Frank Essmann
- Institute for Clinical Pharmacology, Robert Bosch Hospital, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Mathias Rosenfeldt
- Comprehensive Cancer Centre Mainfranken, Würzburg, Germany.,Institute for Pathology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Christian Münch
- Protein Quality Control Group, Institute of Biochemistry II, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Michael Flentje
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Markus E Diefenbacher
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Protein Stability and Cancer Group, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany. .,Mildred Scheel Early Career Center, Würzburg, Germany. .,Comprehensive Cancer Centre Mainfranken, Würzburg, Germany. .,Lehrstuhl für Biochemie und Molekularbiologie, Biozentrum, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Prieto-Garcia C, Hartmann O, Reissland M, Braun F, Bozkurt S, Pahor N, Fuss C, Schirbel A, Schülein-Völk C, Buchberger A, Calzado Canale MA, Rosenfeldt M, Dikic I, Münch C, Diefenbacher ME. USP28 enables oncogenic transformation of respiratory cells and its inhibition potentiates molecular therapy targeting mutant EGFR, BRAF and PI3K. Mol Oncol 2022; 16:3082-3106. [PMID: 35364627 PMCID: PMC9441007 DOI: 10.1002/1878-0261.13217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Revised: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncogenic transformation of lung epithelial cells is a multistep process, frequently starting with the inactivation of tumour suppressors and subsequent development of activating mutations in proto‐oncogenes, such as members of the PI3K or MAPK families. Cells undergoing transformation have to adjust to changes, including altered metabolic requirements. This is achieved, in part, by modulating the protein abundance of transcription factors. Here, we report that the ubiquitin carboxyl‐terminal hydrolase 28 (USP28) enables oncogenic reprogramming by regulating the protein abundance of proto‐oncogenes such as c‐JUN, c‐MYC, NOTCH and ∆NP63 at early stages of malignant transformation. USP28 levels are increased in cancer compared with in normal cells due to a feed‐forward loop, driven by increased amounts of oncogenic transcription factors such as c‐MYC and c‐JUN. Irrespective of oncogenic driver, interference with USP28 abundance or activity suppresses growth and survival of transformed lung cells. Furthermore, inhibition of USP28 via a small‐molecule inhibitor resets the proteome of transformed cells towards a ‘premalignant’ state, and its inhibition synergizes with clinically established compounds used to target EGFRL858R‐, BRAFV600E‐ or PI3KH1047R‐driven tumour cells. Targeting USP28 protein abundance at an early stage via inhibition of its activity is therefore a feasible strategy for the treatment of early‐stage lung tumours, and the observed synergism with current standard‐of‐care inhibitors holds the potential for improved targeting of established tumours.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cristian Prieto-Garcia
- Protein Stability and Cancer Group, University of Wuerzburg, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Wuerzburg, Germany.,Mildred Scheel Early Career Center, Wuerzburg, Germany.,Molecular Signaling Group, Institute of Biochemistry II, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Oliver Hartmann
- Protein Stability and Cancer Group, University of Wuerzburg, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Wuerzburg, Germany.,Mildred Scheel Early Career Center, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Michaela Reissland
- Protein Stability and Cancer Group, University of Wuerzburg, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Wuerzburg, Germany.,Mildred Scheel Early Career Center, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Fabian Braun
- Protein Stability and Cancer Group, University of Wuerzburg, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Wuerzburg, Germany.,Mildred Scheel Early Career Center, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Süleyman Bozkurt
- Protein quality control, Institute of Biochemistry II, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Nikolett Pahor
- Protein Stability and Cancer Group, University of Wuerzburg, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Wuerzburg, Germany.,Mildred Scheel Early Career Center, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Carmina Fuss
- Protein Stability and Cancer Group, University of Wuerzburg, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Wuerzburg, Germany.,Mildred Scheel Early Career Center, Wuerzburg, Germany.,Department of Internal Medicine I, Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, University Hospital, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Schirbel
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | | | | | - Marco A Calzado Canale
- Instituto Maimónides de Investigación Biomédica de Córdoba (IMIBIC), Córdoba, Spain.,Departamento de Biología Celular, Fisiología e Inmunología, Universidad de Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain.,Hospital Universitario Reina Sofía, Córdoba, Spain
| | - Mathias Rosenfeldt
- Mildred Scheel Early Career Center, Wuerzburg, Germany.,Institut für Pathologie, Universitaetsklinikum Wuerzburg
| | - Ivan Dikic
- Molecular Signaling Group, Institute of Biochemistry II, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany.,Buchmann Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Goethe University Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Christian Münch
- Protein quality control, Institute of Biochemistry II, Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Markus E Diefenbacher
- Protein Stability and Cancer Group, University of Wuerzburg, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Wuerzburg, Germany.,Mildred Scheel Early Career Center, Wuerzburg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Papadopoulos D, Solvie D, Baluapuri A, Endres T, Ha SA, Herold S, Kalb J, Giansanti C, Schülein-Völk C, Ade CP, Schneider C, Gaballa A, Vos S, Fischer U, Dobbelstein M, Wolf E, Eilers M. MYCN recruits the nuclear exosome complex to RNA polymerase II to prevent transcription-replication conflicts. Mol Cell 2021; 82:159-176.e12. [PMID: 34847357 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2021.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2021] [Revised: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The MYCN oncoprotein drives the development of numerous neuroendocrine and pediatric tumors. Here we show that MYCN interacts with the nuclear RNA exosome, a 3'-5' exoribonuclease complex, and recruits the exosome to its target genes. In the absence of the exosome, MYCN-directed elongation by RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) is slow and non-productive on a large group of cell-cycle-regulated genes. During the S phase of MYCN-driven tumor cells, the exosome is required to prevent the accumulation of stalled replication forks and of double-strand breaks close to the transcription start sites. Upon depletion of the exosome, activation of ATM causes recruitment of BRCA1, which stabilizes nuclear mRNA decapping complexes, leading to MYCN-dependent transcription termination. Disruption of mRNA decapping in turn activates ATR, indicating transcription-replication conflicts. We propose that exosome recruitment by MYCN maintains productive transcription elongation during S phase and prevents transcription-replication conflicts to maintain the rapid proliferation of neuroendocrine tumor cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dimitrios Papadopoulos
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Daniel Solvie
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Apoorva Baluapuri
- Cancer Systems Biology Group, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Theresa Endres
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Stefanie Anh Ha
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Steffi Herold
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Jacqueline Kalb
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Celeste Giansanti
- Institute of Molecular Oncology, Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of Göttingen, Justus von Liebig Weg 11, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Christina Schülein-Völk
- Core Unit High-Content Microscopy, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Carsten Patrick Ade
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Cornelius Schneider
- Department of Biochemistry, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Abdallah Gaballa
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Seychelle Vos
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 31 Ames Street, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Utz Fischer
- Department of Biochemistry, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Matthias Dobbelstein
- Institute of Molecular Oncology, Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of Göttingen, Justus von Liebig Weg 11, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Elmar Wolf
- Cancer Systems Biology Group, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Martin Eilers
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Cossa G, Roeschert I, Prinz F, Baluapuri A, Vidal RS, Schülein-Völk C, Chang YC, Ade CP, Mastrobuoni G, Girard C, Kumar A, Wortmann L, Walz S, Lührmann R, Kempa S, Kuster B, Wolf E, Mumberg D, Eilers M. Localized inhibition of protein phosphatase 1 by NUAK1 promotes spliceosome activity and reveals a MYC-sensitive feedback control of transcription. Mol Cell 2021; 81:2495. [PMID: 34087181 PMCID: PMC8189434 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2021.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
|
6
|
Roeschert I, Poon E, Henssen AG, Garcia HD, Gatti M, Giansanti C, Jamin Y, Ade CP, Gallant P, Schülein-Völk C, Beli P, Richards M, Rosenfeldt M, Altmeyer M, Anderson J, Eggert A, Dobbelstein M, Bayliss R, Chesler L, Büchel G, Eilers M. Combined inhibition of Aurora-A and ATR kinase results in regression of MYCN-amplified neuroblastoma. Nat Cancer 2021; 2:312-326. [PMID: 33768209 PMCID: PMC7610389 DOI: 10.1038/s43018-020-00171-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Amplification of MYCN is the driving oncogene in a subset of high-risk neuroblastoma. The MYCN protein and the Aurora-A kinase form a complex during S phase that stabilizes MYCN. Here we show that MYCN activates Aurora-A on chromatin, which phosphorylates histone H3 at serine 10 in S phase, promotes the deposition of histone H3.3 and suppresses R-loop formation. Inhibition of Aurora-A induces transcription-replication conflicts and activates the Ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3 related (ATR) kinase, which limits double-strand break accumulation upon Aurora-A inhibition. Combined inhibition of Aurora-A and ATR induces rampant tumor-specific apoptosis and tumor regression in mouse models of neuroblastoma, leading to permanent eradication in a subset of mice. The therapeutic efficacy is due to both tumor cell-intrinsic and immune cell-mediated mechanisms. We propose that targeting the ability of Aurora-A to resolve transcription-replication conflicts is an effective therapy for MYCN-driven neuroblastoma (141 words).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Roeschert
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Evon Poon
- Division of Clinical Studies and Cancer Therapeutics, The Institute of Cancer Research, The Royal Marsden NHS Trust, 15 Cotswold Rd. Belmont, Sutton, Surrey SM2 5NG, UK
| | - Anton G. Henssen
- Experimental and Clinical Research Center, Max Delbrück Center and Charité Berlin, Lindenberger Weg 80, 13125 Berlin, Germany
| | - Heathcliff Dorado Garcia
- Experimental and Clinical Research Center, Max Delbrück Center and Charité Berlin, Lindenberger Weg 80, 13125 Berlin, Germany
| | - Marco Gatti
- Department of Molecular Mechanisms of Disease, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstraße 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Celeste Giansanti
- Institute of Molecular Oncology, Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of Göttingen, Justus von Liebig Weg 11, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Yann Jamin
- Divisions of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, The Royal Marsden NHS Trust, 15 Cotswold Rd. Belmont, Sutton, Surrey SM2 5NG, UK
| | - Carsten P. Ade
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Peter Gallant
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Christina Schülein-Völk
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Core Unit High-Content Microscopy, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Petra Beli
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Ackermannweg 4, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Mark Richards
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Mathias Rosenfeldt
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken, University Hospital Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 6, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Matthias Altmeyer
- Department of Molecular Mechanisms of Disease, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstraße 190, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - John Anderson
- UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, 30 Guilford Street London WC1N 1EH, UK
| | - Angelika Eggert
- Experimental and Clinical Research Center, Max Delbrück Center and Charité Berlin, Lindenberger Weg 80, 13125 Berlin, Germany
| | - Matthias Dobbelstein
- Institute of Molecular Oncology, Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of Göttingen, Justus von Liebig Weg 11, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Richard Bayliss
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Louis Chesler
- Division of Clinical Studies and Cancer Therapeutics, The Institute of Cancer Research, The Royal Marsden NHS Trust, 15 Cotswold Rd. Belmont, Sutton, Surrey SM2 5NG, UK
| | - Gabriele Büchel
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
- Mildred Scheel Early Career Center, University Hospital Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Str. 6, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Martin Eilers
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Schmidt S, Gay D, Uthe FW, Denk S, Paauwe M, Matthes N, Diefenbacher ME, Bryson S, Warrander FC, Erhard F, Ade CP, Baluapuri A, Walz S, Jackstadt R, Ford C, Vlachogiannis G, Valeri N, Otto C, Schülein-Völk C, Maurus K, Schmitz W, Knight JRP, Wolf E, Strathdee D, Schulze A, Germer CT, Rosenwald A, Sansom OJ, Eilers M, Wiegering A. A MYC-GCN2-eIF2α negative feedback loop limits protein synthesis to prevent MYC-dependent apoptosis in colorectal cancer. Nat Cell Biol 2019; 21:1413-1424. [PMID: 31685988 PMCID: PMC6927814 DOI: 10.1038/s41556-019-0408-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2018] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Tumours depend on altered rates of protein synthesis for growth and survival, which suggests that mechanisms controlling mRNA translation may be exploitable for therapy. Here, we show that loss of APC, which occurs almost universally in colorectal tumours, strongly enhances the dependence on the translation initiation factor eIF2B5. Depletion of eIF2B5 induces an integrated stress response and enhances translation of MYC via an internal ribosomal entry site. This perturbs cellular amino acid and nucleotide pools, strains energy resources and causes MYC-dependent apoptosis. eIF2B5 limits MYC expression and prevents apoptosis in APC-deficient murine and patient-derived organoids and in APC-deficient murine intestinal epithelia in vivo. Conversely, the high MYC levels present in APC-deficient cells induce phosphorylation of eIF2α via the kinases GCN2 and PKR. Pharmacological inhibition of GCN2 phenocopies eIF2B5 depletion and has therapeutic efficacy in tumour organoids, which demonstrates that a negative MYC-eIF2α feedback loop constitutes a targetable vulnerability of colorectal tumours.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Schmidt
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, Würzburg, Germany
- Department of General, Visceral, Vascular and Pediatric Surgery, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | | | - Friedrich Wilhelm Uthe
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, Würzburg, Germany
- Department of General, Visceral, Vascular and Pediatric Surgery, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Sarah Denk
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, Würzburg, Germany
- Department of General, Visceral, Vascular and Pediatric Surgery, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | | | - Niels Matthes
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, Würzburg, Germany
- Department of General, Visceral, Vascular and Pediatric Surgery, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Florian Erhard
- Institute for Virology and Immunobiology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Carsten Patrick Ade
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Apoorva Baluapuri
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Susanne Walz
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken, Core Unit Bioinformatics, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, Würzburg, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Nicola Valeri
- Division of Molecular Pathology, The Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK
- Department of Medicine, The Royal Marsden NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Christoph Otto
- Department of General, Visceral, Vascular and Pediatric Surgery, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | | | - Katja Maurus
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Werner Schmitz
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, Würzburg, Germany
| | | | - Elmar Wolf
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, Würzburg, Germany
| | | | - Almut Schulze
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, Würzburg, Germany
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Christoph-Thomas Germer
- Department of General, Visceral, Vascular and Pediatric Surgery, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Rosenwald
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Owen James Sansom
- CRUK Beatson Institute, Glasgow, UK
- Institute of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Martin Eilers
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, Würzburg, Germany.
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.
| | - Armin Wiegering
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, Würzburg, Germany.
- Department of General, Visceral, Vascular and Pediatric Surgery, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Herold S, Kalb J, Büchel G, Ade CP, Baluapuri A, Xu J, Koster J, Solvie D, Carstensen A, Klotz C, Rodewald S, Schülein-Völk C, Dobbelstein M, Wolf E, Molenaar J, Versteeg R, Walz S, Eilers M. Recruitment of BRCA1 limits MYCN-driven accumulation of stalled RNA polymerase. Nature 2019; 567:545-549. [PMID: 30894746 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-019-1030-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
MYC is an oncogenic transcription factor that binds globally to active promoters and promotes transcriptional elongation by RNA polymerase II (RNAPII)1,2. Deregulated expression of the paralogous protein MYCN drives the development of neuronal and neuroendocrine tumours and is often associated with a particularly poor prognosis3. Here we show that, similar to MYC, activation of MYCN in human neuroblastoma cells induces escape of RNAPII from promoters. If the release of RNAPII from transcriptional pause sites (pause release) fails, MYCN recruits BRCA1 to promoter-proximal regions. Recruitment of BRCA1 prevents MYCN-dependent accumulation of stalled RNAPII and enhances transcriptional activation by MYCN. Mechanistically, BRCA1 stabilizes mRNA decapping complexes and enables MYCN to suppress R-loop formation in promoter-proximal regions. Recruitment of BRCA1 requires the ubiquitin-specific protease USP11, which binds specifically to MYCN when MYCN is dephosphorylated at Thr58. USP11, BRCA1 and MYCN stabilize each other on chromatin, preventing proteasomal turnover of MYCN. Because BRCA1 is highly expressed in neuronal progenitor cells during early development4 and MYC is less efficient than MYCN in recruiting BRCA1, our findings indicate that a cell-lineage-specific stress response enables MYCN-driven tumours to cope with deregulated RNAPII function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Steffi Herold
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.
| | - Jacqueline Kalb
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Gabriele Büchel
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Carsten P Ade
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Apoorva Baluapuri
- Cancer Systems Biology Group, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Jiajia Xu
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Jan Koster
- Department of Oncogenomics, Academic Medical Center (AMC), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Daniel Solvie
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Anne Carstensen
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Christina Klotz
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Sabrina Rodewald
- Institute of Molecular Oncology, Göttingen Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Christina Schülein-Völk
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Matthias Dobbelstein
- Institute of Molecular Oncology, Göttingen Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Elmar Wolf
- Cancer Systems Biology Group, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Jan Molenaar
- Department of Translational Research, Prinses Máxima Centrum voor Kinderoncologie, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Rogier Versteeg
- Department of Oncogenomics, Academic Medical Center (AMC), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Susanne Walz
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken, Core Unit Bioinformatics, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Martin Eilers
- Theodor Boveri Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Schülein-Völk C, Wolf E, Zhu J, Xu W, Taranets L, Hellmann A, Jänicke LA, Diefenbacher ME, Behrens A, Eilers M, Popov N. Dual regulation of Fbw7 function and oncogenic transformation by Usp28. Cell Rep 2014; 9:1099-109. [PMID: 25437563 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2014.09.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2014] [Revised: 09/11/2014] [Accepted: 09/28/2014] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Fbw7, the substrate recognition subunit of SCF(Fbw7) ubiquitin ligase, mediates the turnover of multiple proto-oncoproteins and promotes its own degradation. Fbw7-dependent substrate ubiquitination is antagonized by the Usp28 deubiquitinase. Here, we show that Usp28 preferentially antagonizes autocatalytic ubiquitination and stabilizes Fbw7, resulting in dose-dependent effects in Usp28 knockout mice. Monoallelic deletion of Usp28 maintains stable Fbw7 but drives Fbw7 substrate degradation. In contrast, complete knockout triggers Fbw7 degradation and leads to the accumulation of Fbw7 substrates in several tissues and embryonic fibroblasts. On the other hand, overexpression of Usp28 stabilizes both Fbw7 and its substrates. Consequently, both complete loss and ectopic expression of Usp28 promote Ras-driven oncogenic transformation. We propose that dual regulation of Fbw7 activity by Usp28 is a safeguard mechanism for maintaining physiological levels of proto-oncogenic Fbw7 substrates, which is equivalently disrupted by loss or overexpression of Usp28.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christina Schülein-Völk
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biozentrum, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Elmar Wolf
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biozentrum, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Jing Zhu
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken and Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital Würzburg, Versbacher Strasse 5, 97078 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Wenshan Xu
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken and Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital Würzburg, Versbacher Strasse 5, 97078 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Lyudmyla Taranets
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken and Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital Würzburg, Versbacher Strasse 5, 97078 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Hellmann
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken and Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital Würzburg, Versbacher Strasse 5, 97078 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Laura A Jänicke
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biozentrum, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Markus E Diefenbacher
- Mammalian Genetics Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Lincoln's Inn Fields Laboratories 44, Lincoln's Inn Fields, London WC2A 3LY, UK
| | - Axel Behrens
- Mammalian Genetics Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Lincoln's Inn Fields Laboratories 44, Lincoln's Inn Fields, London WC2A 3LY, UK
| | - Martin Eilers
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biozentrum, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany; Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken and Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital Würzburg, Versbacher Strasse 5, 97078 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Nikita Popov
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biozentrum, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg, Germany; Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken and Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital Würzburg, Versbacher Strasse 5, 97078 Würzburg, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Diefenbacher ME, Popov N, Blake SM, Schülein-Völk C, Nye E, Spencer-Dene B, Jaenicke LA, Eilers M, Behrens A. The deubiquitinase USP28 controls intestinal homeostasis and promotes colorectal cancer. J Clin Invest 2014; 124:3407-18. [PMID: 24960159 PMCID: PMC4109555 DOI: 10.1172/jci73733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2013] [Accepted: 05/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer worldwide. Although the transcription factor c-MYC is misregulated in the majority of colorectal tumors, it is difficult to target directly. The deubiquitinase USP28 stabilizes oncogenic factors, including c-MYC; however, the contribution of USP28 in tumorigenesis, particularly in the intestine, is unknown. Here, using murine genetic models, we determined that USP28 antagonizes the ubiquitin-dependent degradation of c-MYC, a known USP28 substrate, as well as 2 additional oncogenic factors, c-JUN and NOTCH1, in the intestine. Mice lacking Usp28 had no apparent adverse phenotypes, but exhibited reduced intestinal proliferation and impaired differentiation of secretory lineage cells. In a murine model of colorectal cancer, Usp28 deletion resulted in fewer intestinal tumors, and importantly, in established tumors, Usp28 deletion reduced tumor size and dramatically increased lifespan. Moreover, we identified Usp28 as a c-MYC target gene highly expressed in murine and human intestinal cancers, which indicates that USP28 and c-MYC form a positive feedback loop that maintains high c-MYC protein levels in tumors. Usp28 deficiency promoted tumor cell differentiation accompanied by decreased proliferation, which suggests that USP28 acts similarly in intestinal homeostasis and colorectal cancer models. Hence, inhibition of the enzymatic activity of USP28 may be a potential target for cancer therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Markus E. Diefenbacher
- Mammalian Genetics Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom. Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany. Experimental Histopathology Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom. School of Medicine, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Nikita Popov
- Mammalian Genetics Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom. Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany. Experimental Histopathology Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom. School of Medicine, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sophia M. Blake
- Mammalian Genetics Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom. Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany. Experimental Histopathology Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom. School of Medicine, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Christina Schülein-Völk
- Mammalian Genetics Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom. Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany. Experimental Histopathology Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom. School of Medicine, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Emma Nye
- Mammalian Genetics Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom. Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany. Experimental Histopathology Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom. School of Medicine, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Bradley Spencer-Dene
- Mammalian Genetics Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom. Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany. Experimental Histopathology Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom. School of Medicine, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Laura A. Jaenicke
- Mammalian Genetics Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom. Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany. Experimental Histopathology Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom. School of Medicine, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Martin Eilers
- Mammalian Genetics Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom. Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany. Experimental Histopathology Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom. School of Medicine, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Axel Behrens
- Mammalian Genetics Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom. Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Theodor Boveri Institute, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany. Experimental Histopathology Laboratory, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Lincoln’s Inn Fields Laboratories, London, United Kingdom. School of Medicine, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|