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Hukkanen M, Hsu B, Cossin‐Sevrin N, Crombecque M, Delaunay A, Hollmen L, Kaukonen R, Konki M, Lund R, Marciau C, Stier A, Ruuskanen S. From maternal glucocorticoid and thyroid hormones to epigenetic regulation of offspring gene expression: An experimental study in a wild bird species. Evol Appl 2023; 16:1753-1769. [PMID: 38020869 PMCID: PMC10660793 DOI: 10.1111/eva.13598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Revised: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Offspring phenotype at birth is determined by its genotype and the prenatal environment including exposure to maternal hormones. Variation in both maternal glucocorticoids and thyroid hormones can affect offspring phenotype, but the underlying molecular mechanisms, especially those contributing to long-lasting effects, remain unclear. Epigenetic changes (such as DNA methylation) have been postulated as mediators of long-lasting effects of early-life environment. In this study, we determined the effects of elevated prenatal glucocorticoid and thyroid hormones on handling stress response (breath rate) as well as DNA methylation and gene expression of glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and thyroid hormone receptor (THR) in great tits (Parus major). Eggs were injected before incubation onset with corticosterone (the main avian glucocorticoid) and/or thyroid hormones (thyroxine and triiodothyronine) to simulate variation in maternal hormone deposition. Breath rate during handling and gene expression of GR and THR were evaluated 14 days after hatching. Methylation status of GR and THR genes was analyzed from the longitudinal blood cells sampled 7 and 14 days after hatching, as well as the following autumn. Elevated prenatal corticosterone level significantly increased the breath rate during handling, indicating an enhanced metabolic stress response. Prenatal corticosterone manipulation had CpG-site-specific effects on DNA methylation at the GR putative promoter region, while it did not significantly affect GR gene expression. GR expression was negatively associated with earlier hatching date and chick size. THR methylation or expression did not exhibit any significant relationship with the hormonal treatments or the examined covariates, suggesting that TH signaling may be more robust due to its crucial role in development. This study provides some support to the hypothesis suggesting that maternal corticosterone may influence offspring metabolic stress response via epigenetic alterations, yet their possible adaptive role in optimizing offspring phenotype to the prevailing conditions, context-dependency, and the underlying molecular interplay needs further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikaela Hukkanen
- Institute for Molecular Medicine FinlandUniversity of HelsinkiHelsinkiFinland
| | - Bin‐Yan Hsu
- Department of BiologyUniversity of TurkuTurkuFinland
| | | | | | - Axelle Delaunay
- Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution de Montpellier (ISEM)Université de Montpellier, CNRS, IRD, EPHEMontpellierFrance
| | - Lotta Hollmen
- Department of BiologyUniversity of TurkuTurkuFinland
| | - Riina Kaukonen
- Turku Bioscience CentreUniversity of Turku and Åbo Akademi UniversityTurkuFinland
| | - Mikko Konki
- Turku Bioscience CentreUniversity of Turku and Åbo Akademi UniversityTurkuFinland
- Turku Doctoral Programme of Molecular MedicineUniversity of TurkuTurkuFinland
| | - Riikka Lund
- Turku Bioscience CentreUniversity of Turku and Åbo Akademi UniversityTurkuFinland
| | - Coline Marciau
- Department of BiologyUniversity of TurkuTurkuFinland
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic StudiesUniversity of TasmaniaHobartTasmaniaAustralia
| | - Antoine Stier
- Department of BiologyUniversity of TurkuTurkuFinland
- Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien, UMR 7178University of Strasbourg, CNRSStrasbourgFrance
| | - Suvi Ruuskanen
- Department of BiologyUniversity of TurkuTurkuFinland
- Department of Biological and Environmental ScienceUniversity of JyväskyläJyväskyläFinland
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2
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Marciau C, Costantini D, Bestley S, Hicks O, Hindell MA, Kato A, Raclot T, Ribout C, Ropert-Coudert Y, Angelier F. Environmental drivers of growth and oxidative status during early life in a long-lived Antarctic seabird, the Adélie Penguin. Physiol Biochem Zool 2023. [DOI: 10.1086/724686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
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3
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Hicks O, Kato A, Wisniewska DM, Marciau C, Angelier F, Ropert-Coudert Y, Hegemann A. Holding time has limited impact on constitutive innate immune function in a long-lived Antarctic seabird, the Adélie penguin: implications for field studies. Biol Open 2023; 12:286793. [PMID: 36716101 PMCID: PMC9990909 DOI: 10.1242/bio.059512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
There is great interest in measuring immune function in wild animals. Yet, field conditions often have methodological challenges related to handling stress, which can alter physiology. Despite general consensus that immune function is influenced by handling stress, previous studies have provided equivocal results. Furthermore, few studies have focused on long-lived species, which may have different stress-immune trade-offs compared to short-lived species that have primarily been tested. Here, we investigate whether capture and handling duration impacts innate immune function in a long-lived seabird, the Adélie penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae). We found no evidence for changes in three commonly used parameters of innate immune function upon holding time of up to 2 h, suggesting that immune function in this species is more robust against handling than in other species. This opens up exciting possibilities for measuring immune function in species with similar life-histories even if samples cannot be taken directly after capture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia Hicks
- Centre d'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé, CNRS, La Rochelle Université, UMR 7372, Villiers-en-Bois, France.,Department of Biology, Lund University, Ecology Building, 223 62 Lund, Sweden
| | - Akiko Kato
- Centre d'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé, CNRS, La Rochelle Université, UMR 7372, Villiers-en-Bois, France
| | | | - Coline Marciau
- Centre d'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé, CNRS, La Rochelle Université, UMR 7372, Villiers-en-Bois, France
| | - Frédéric Angelier
- Centre d'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé, CNRS, La Rochelle Université, UMR 7372, Villiers-en-Bois, France
| | - Yan Ropert-Coudert
- Centre d'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé, CNRS, La Rochelle Université, UMR 7372, Villiers-en-Bois, France
| | - Arne Hegemann
- Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark, 5230 Odense, Denmark
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4
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Cossin-Sevrin N, Hsu BY, Marciau C, Viblanc VA, Ruuskanen S, Stier A. Developmental plasticity of mitochondrial aerobic metabolism, growth and survival by prenatal glucocorticoids and thyroid hormones: an experimental test in wild great tits. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:275345. [PMID: 35420125 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.243414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Developmental plasticity is partly mediated by transgenerational effects, including those mediated by the maternal endocrine system. Glucocorticoid and thyroid hormones may play central roles in developmental programming through their action on metabolism and growth. However, the mechanisms by which they affect growth and development remain understudied. One hypothesis is that maternal hormones directly affect the production and availability of energy-carrying molecules (e.g. ATP) by their action on mitochondrial function. To test this hypothesis, we experimentally increased glucocorticoid and thyroid hormones in wild great tit eggs (Parus major) to investigate their impact on offspring mitochondrial aerobic metabolism (measured in blood cells), and subsequent growth and survival. We show that prenatal glucocorticoid supplementation affected offspring cellular aerobic metabolism by decreasing mitochondrial density, maximal mitochondrial respiration and oxidative phosphorylation, while increasing the proportion of the maximum capacity being used under endogenous conditions. Prenatal glucocorticoid supplementation only had mild effects on offspring body mass, size and condition during the rearing period, but led to a sex-specific (females only) decrease in body mass a few months after fledging. Contrary to our expectations, thyroid hormones supplementation did not affect offspring growth or mitochondrial metabolism. Recapture probabilities as juveniles or adults were not significantly affected by prenatal hormonal treatments. Our results demonstrate that prenatal glucocorticoids can affect post-natal mitochondrial density and aerobic metabolism. The weak effects on growth and apparent survival suggest that nestlings were mostly able to compensate for the transient decrease in mitochondrial aerobic metabolism induced by prenatal glucocorticoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Cossin-Sevrin
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Université de Strasbourg, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien, UMR 7178, 67087 Strasbourg, France
| | - Bin-Yan Hsu
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Coline Marciau
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Australia
| | - Vincent A Viblanc
- Université de Strasbourg, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Institut Pluridisciplinaire Hubert Curien, UMR 7178, 67087 Strasbourg, France
| | - Suvi Ruuskanen
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Antoine Stier
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, ENTPE, UMR 5023 LEHNA, F-69622, Villeurbanne, France
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5
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Beaulieu M, Dähne M, Köpp J, Marciau C, Kato A, Ropert-Coudert Y, Raclot T. Exploring the interplay between nest vocalizations and foraging behaviour in breeding birds. Anim Behav 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2021.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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6
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Hicks O, Kato A, Angelier F, Wisniewska DM, Hambly C, Speakman JR, Marciau C, Ropert-Coudert Y. Acceleration predicts energy expenditure in a fat, flightless, diving bird. Sci Rep 2020; 10:21493. [PMID: 33299039 PMCID: PMC7726140 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-78025-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Energy drives behaviour and life history decisions, yet it can be hard to measure at fine scales in free-moving animals. Accelerometry has proven a powerful tool to estimate energy expenditure, but requires calibration in the wild. This can be difficult in some environments, or for particular behaviours, and validations have produced equivocal results in some species, particularly air-breathing divers. It is, therefore, important to calibrate accelerometry across different behaviours to understand the most parsimonious way to estimate energy expenditure in free-living conditions. Here, we combine data from miniaturised acceleration loggers on 58 free-living Adélie penguins with doubly labelled water (DLW) measurements of their energy expenditure over several days. Across different behaviours, both in water and on land, dynamic body acceleration was a good predictor of independently measured DLW-derived energy expenditure (R2 = 0.72). The most parsimonious model suggested different calibration coefficients are required to predict behaviours on land versus foraging behaviour in water (R2 = 0.75). Our results show that accelerometry can be used to reliably estimate energy expenditure in penguins, and we provide calibration equations for estimating metabolic rate across several behaviours in the wild.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia Hicks
- Centre D'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé, CNRS, La Rochelle Université, UMR 7372, Villiers-en-Bois, France.
| | - Akiko Kato
- Centre D'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé, CNRS, La Rochelle Université, UMR 7372, Villiers-en-Bois, France
| | - Frederic Angelier
- Centre D'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé, CNRS, La Rochelle Université, UMR 7372, Villiers-en-Bois, France
| | - Danuta M Wisniewska
- Centre D'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé, CNRS, La Rochelle Université, UMR 7372, Villiers-en-Bois, France
| | - Catherine Hambly
- Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| | - John R Speakman
- Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Coline Marciau
- Centre D'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé, CNRS, La Rochelle Université, UMR 7372, Villiers-en-Bois, France
| | - Yan Ropert-Coudert
- Centre D'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé, CNRS, La Rochelle Université, UMR 7372, Villiers-en-Bois, France
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7
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Stier A, Hsu BY, Marciau C, Doligez B, Gustafsson L, Bize P, Ruuskanen S. Born to be young? Prenatal thyroid hormones increase early-life telomere length in wild collared flycatchers. Biol Lett 2020; 16:20200364. [PMID: 33171077 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2020.0364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The underlying mechanisms of the lifelong consequences of prenatal environmental condition on health and ageing remain little understood. Thyroid hormones (THs) are important regulators of embryogenesis, transferred from the mother to the embryo. Since prenatal THs can accelerate early-life development, we hypothesized that this might occur at the expense of resource allocation in somatic maintenance processes, leading to premature ageing. Therefore, we investigated the consequences of prenatal TH supplementation on potential hallmarks of ageing in a free-living avian model in which we previously demonstrated that experimentally elevated prenatal TH exposure accelerates early-life growth. Using cross-sectional sampling, we first report that mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) copy number and telomere length significantly decrease from early-life to late adulthood, thus suggesting that these two molecular markers could be hallmarks of ageing in our wild bird model. Elevated prenatal THs had no effect on mtDNA copy number but counterintuitively increased telomere length both soon after birth and at the end of the growth period (equivalent to offsetting ca 4 years of post-growth telomere shortening). These findings suggest that prenatal THs might have a role in setting the 'biological' age at birth, but raise questions about the nature of the evolutionary costs of prenatal exposure to high TH levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Stier
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.,Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Bin-Yan Hsu
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Coline Marciau
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Blandine Doligez
- Department of Biometry and Evolutionary Biology, CNRS, Université Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Lars Gustafsson
- Department of Ecology and Genetics/Animal Ecology, University of Uppsala, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Pierre Bize
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Suvi Ruuskanen
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
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8
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Chiffard J, Marciau C, Yoccoz NG, Mouillot F, Duchateau S, Nadeau I, Fontanilles P, Besnard A. Adaptive niche‐based sampling to improve ability to find rare and elusive species: Simulations and field tests. Methods Ecol Evol 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/2041-210x.13399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jules Chiffard
- EPHE PSL Research UniversityCNRSUMSupAgroIRDINRAUMR 5175 CEFE Montpellier France
| | - Coline Marciau
- EPHE PSL Research UniversityCNRSUMSupAgroIRDINRAUMR 5175 CEFE Montpellier France
| | - Nigel Gilles Yoccoz
- Department of Arctic and Marine Biology UiT The Arctic University of Norway Tromsø Norway
| | - Florent Mouillot
- Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD) UMR CEFE 5175 CNRSUniversité MontpellierUniversité Paul Valery MontpellierEPHE Montpellier Cedex 5 France
| | | | - Iris Nadeau
- EPHE PSL Research UniversityCNRSUMSupAgroIRDINRAUMR 5175 CEFE Montpellier France
| | | | - Aurélien Besnard
- EPHE PSL Research UniversityCNRSUMSupAgroIRDINRAUMR 5175 CEFE Montpellier France
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9
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Dupoué A, Rutschmann A, Le Galliard JF, Clobert J, Angelier F, Marciau C, Ruault S, Miles D, Meylan S. Shorter telomeres precede population extinction in wild lizards. Sci Rep 2017; 7:16976. [PMID: 29209027 PMCID: PMC5717062 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-17323-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2017] [Accepted: 11/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Identifying the early warning signals of catastrophic extinctions has recently become a central focus for ecologists, but species’ functional responses to environmental changes remain an untapped source for the sharpening of such warning signals. Telomere length (TL) analysis represents a promising molecular tool with which to raise the alarm regarding early population decline, since telomere attrition is associated with aging processes and accelerates after a recurrent exposure to environmental stressors. In the southern margin of their range, populations of the common lizard (Zootoca vivipara) recently became extinct at lowest elevations due to changes in climate conditions. However, the proximal signals involved in these demographic declines are still unknown. Here, we sampled 100 yearling lizards from 10 natural populations (n = 10 per population) along an extinction risk gradient. Relative lizard abundance dramatically dropped over 12 years in low-altitude populations characterized by warmer ambient temperatures and higher body growth of lizards early in life. A non-linear relationship was found between TL and population extinction risk, with shorter telomeres in populations facing high risk of extinction when compared to non-threatened ones. Our results identify TL as a promising biomarker and imply that population extinctions might be preceded by a loop of physiological aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andréaz Dupoué
- CNRS UPMC, UMR 7618, iEES Paris, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, 4 place Jussieu, 75005, Paris, France.
| | - Alexis Rutschmann
- Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale du CNRS à Moulis, UMR 5321, 09200, Saint Girons, France.,School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Jean François Le Galliard
- CNRS UPMC, UMR 7618, iEES Paris, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, 4 place Jussieu, 75005, Paris, France.,Ecole Normale Supérieure, PSL Research University, CNRS, Centre de recherche en écologie expérimentale et prédictive (CEREEP-Ecotron IleDeFrance), UMS 3194, 78 rue du château, 77140, Saint-Pierre-lès-Nemours, France
| | - Jean Clobert
- Station d'Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale du CNRS à Moulis, UMR 5321, 09200, Saint Girons, France
| | - Frédéric Angelier
- CNRS CEBC-ULR, UMR 7672, Villiers en Bois, 79360, Beauvoir sur Niort, France
| | - Coline Marciau
- CNRS UPMC, UMR 7618, iEES Paris, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, 4 place Jussieu, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Stéphanie Ruault
- CNRS CEBC-ULR, UMR 7672, Villiers en Bois, 79360, Beauvoir sur Niort, France
| | - Donald Miles
- Department of Biological Sciences, Ohio University, Athens, OH, 45701, USA
| | - Sandrine Meylan
- CNRS UPMC, UMR 7618, iEES Paris, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, 4 place Jussieu, 75005, Paris, France.,ESPE de Paris, Université Sorbonne Paris IV, 10 rue Molitor, 75016, Paris, France
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10
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Meillère A, Brischoux F, Bustamante P, Michaud B, Parenteau C, Marciau C, Angelier F. Corticosterone levels in relation to trace element contamination along an urbanization gradient in the common blackbird (Turdus merula). Sci Total Environ 2016; 566-567:93-101. [PMID: 27213675 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2016] [Revised: 05/01/2016] [Accepted: 05/02/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
In a rapidly urbanizing world, trace element pollution may represent a threat to human health and wildlife, and it is therefore crucial to assess both exposition levels and associated effects of trace element contamination on urban vertebrates. In this study, we investigated the impact of urbanization on trace element contamination and stress physiology in a wild bird species, the common blackbird (Turdus merula), along an urbanization gradient (from rural to moderately urbanized areas). Specifically, we described the contamination levels of blackbirds by 4 non-essential (Ag, Cd, Hg, Pb) and 9 essential trace elements (As, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Se, Zn), and explored the putative disrupting effects of the non-essential element contamination on corticosterone levels (a hormonal proxy for environmental challenges). We found that non-essential trace element burden (Cd and Pb specifically) increased with increasing urbanization, indicating a significant trace element contamination even in medium sized cities and suburban areas. Interestingly, the increased feather non-essential trace element concentrations were also associated with elevated feather corticosterone levels, suggesting that urbanization probably constrains birds and that this effect may be mediated by trace element contamination. Future experimental studies are now required to disentangle the influence of multiple urban-related constraints on corticosterone levels and to specifically test the influence of each of these trace elements on corticosterone secretion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alizée Meillère
- Centre d'Études Biologiques de Chizé (CEBC), UMR 7372 CNRS-Université de La Rochelle, F-79360 Villiers-en-Bois, France.
| | - François Brischoux
- Centre d'Études Biologiques de Chizé (CEBC), UMR 7372 CNRS-Université de La Rochelle, F-79360 Villiers-en-Bois, France
| | - Paco Bustamante
- Littoral Environnement et Sociétés (LIENSs), UMR 7266 CNRS-Université de La Rochelle, F-17000 La Rochelle, France
| | - Bruno Michaud
- Centre d'Études Biologiques de Chizé (CEBC), UMR 7372 CNRS-Université de La Rochelle, F-79360 Villiers-en-Bois, France
| | - Charline Parenteau
- Centre d'Études Biologiques de Chizé (CEBC), UMR 7372 CNRS-Université de La Rochelle, F-79360 Villiers-en-Bois, France
| | - Coline Marciau
- Centre d'Études Biologiques de Chizé (CEBC), UMR 7372 CNRS-Université de La Rochelle, F-79360 Villiers-en-Bois, France
| | - Frédéric Angelier
- Centre d'Études Biologiques de Chizé (CEBC), UMR 7372 CNRS-Université de La Rochelle, F-79360 Villiers-en-Bois, France
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