[COVID-19 in Latin America: inequalities and response capacity of health systems to health emergenciesCOVID-19 en América Latina: desigualdades y capacidad de respuesta de los sistemas de salud ante emergencias de salud]

Objective

To identify correlations between COVID-19, demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, and the capacity of Latin American health systems to respond to health emergencies.

Method

An ecological study was performed using secondary data from 20 Latin American countries regarding incidence, mortality, testing and vaccination coverage for covid-19 from 2020 to 2021 as well as demographic and socioeconomic indicators. The preparedness of countries to respond to health emergencies was explored based on the 2019 State Party Self-Assessment Annual Report on the implementation of the International Health Regulations (IHR). Statistical analyses were performed using the Spearman correlation test (rho).

Results

A high positive correlation was noted between gross domestic product per capita and the human development index with the incidence of COVID-19, testing, and vaccination coverage; and between the proportion of elderly population and vaccination coverage. No correlations were identified between the covid-19 indicators and previous IHR implementation capacities.

Conclusions

The lack of correlation between indicators related to COVID-19 and the ability to implement the IHR may reflect limitations of the indicators used or of the IHR monitoring tool as an instrument that induces the preparedness of countries to face health emergencies. The results suggest the importance of structural conditioning factors and the need for longitudinal, comparative, and qualitative studies to understand the factors that influenced the response of countries to COVID-19.

The National Council for Food and Nutrition Security: dynamics and agenda (2006-2016)

Food insecurity is a worldwide public health problem. In Brazil, the configuration of a Food and Nutrition Security (FNS) policy has gained prominence in the government agenda since 1980. We highlight the creation of the National Council for Food and Nutrition Security (CONSEA) aiming at articulation between sectors and social participation. This article examines the role of CONSEA in coordinating FNS policy in Brazil from 2006 to 2016. The research was based on the approaches of historical institutionalism and used the dynamics of action and the CONSEA agenda as axes of analysis. The methodological strategies carried out were: bibliographic review, document analysis and semi-structured interviews. It was observed that CONSEA was marked by an expressive performance by civil society and variable participation of government representatives. Regarding the agenda, conflicting topics were much debated, but had little impact on the adoption of legal and normative measures. It is concluded that the strengthening of CONSEA, combined with the confrontation of economic interests, adequate financing and the performance of the State in social protection, are essential for overcoming challenges, implementing the FNS policy and promoting the health of the population.

Governance and state capacities against COVID-19 in Germany and Spain: national responses and health systems from a comparative perspective

This study aimed to analyze comparatively strategies and political actions adopted in response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany and Spain in 2020. Based on historical institutionalism, we focused on the institutionality of government action in five work dimensions. The results showed different state capacities in coordination, implementation, and effectiveness of strategies. Crisis management and governance strengths are related to recognizing its severity and negotiation skills; national production capacity of supplies and equipment; and broad targeting of fiscal and financial resources from central government to health, social, and economic areas. These aspects varied between cases, acting as a relevant differential in governmental response. Other differentials were health system's structure; availability of workers; and national science and technology system, highlighting the importance of medium and long-term investments.

Public-private relations in Chile's health system: regulation, funding and service delivery

This article analyzes the configuration of public-private relations in Chile's health system between 2000 and 2018, focusing on organization and regulation, funding and service delivery. The following data collection methods were employed: literature review, content analysis of official documents and secondary data, and semi-structured interviews. With regard to organization and regulation, the findings show a lack of institutional mechanisms to mitigate risk selection and that access to private services is intimately linked to ability to pay. The funding model is incapable of sustaining the public health system. With respect to service delivery, despite the implementation of strategies that suggest advances, the segmentation of the system is sustained by the fragmentation of care and purchase of private services. Our findings show that the nature of public-private relations in Chile's health system reinforces the segmentation of population groups produced by the market-oriented approach. Although the reforms implemented during the study period mitigate the effects of segmentation, they were unable to produce structural changes in the configuration of the health system.

Governança e coordenação intersetorial de políticas públicas: a Câmara Intersetorial de Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional

RESUMO A trajetória da política de Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional (SAN) no Brasil expressa a construção de estratégias de governança para viabilizar a participação social e a articulação entre setores. Nesse processo, destacam-se as Conferências Nacionais, o Conselho Nacional de Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional (Consea) e a Câmara Intersetorial de Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional (Caisan), composta por ministérios e secretarias governamentais. O objetivo deste artigo é analisar a atuação da Caisan, de 2012 a 2016, na coordenação intersetorial da política no governo federal. A pesquisa se baseou na literatura sobre governança, considerando dois eixos de análise: estrutura e dinâmica de atuação da Câmara; a agenda da Caisan e sua relação com o Consea. As estratégias metodológicas foram: revisão bibliográfica, análise documental e entrevistas semiestruturadas. Observou-se que a atuação da Caisan favoreceu a coordenação intersetorial da política, influenciando medidas governamentais em resposta a demandas das Conferências e do Consea. Contudo, constataram-se fragilidades, como baixa participação de representantes governamentais com poder decisório e limitado enfrentamento de desafios em áreas que expressam conflitos entre interesses econômicos e sanitários. Conclui-se que o seu fortalecimento é essencial, sobretudo após a extinção do Consea, que favorecia a participação social e a intersetorialidade na política de SAN.

Produção de conhecimento em política, planejamento e gestão na Revista Ciência & Saúde Coletiva

Resumo A área de Políticas, Planejamento e Gestão em Saúde (PPG) é um dos pilares do campo da Saúde Coletiva, expressando a interseção entre pesquisa, intervenção e ação política. O artigo analisa a dinâmica da produção de conhecimento em PPG, na revista Ciência & Saúde Coletiva (C&SC), de 1996 a 2019, articulando abordagem bibliométrica e qualitativa para caracterizar três dimensões: temática, metodológica e autoria/parcerias institucionais. Identificaram-se 1.680 manuscritos, correspondendo a 28,3% do total de publicações da revista no período. A análise temática mostrou influência do contexto e da trajetória de implantação do Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS). Destacaram-se estudos empíricos qualitativos, seguidos dos quantitativos e dos com outros desenhos. A combinação de procedimentos metodológicos foi frequente, sendo mais citadas a revisão bibliográfica e entrevistas/questionários. A maioria dos artigos foi publicada em português e, apesar do aumento das publicações em inglês no final do período, parcerias com autores de outros países foram raras, persistindo o desafio da internacionalização. Conclui-se que a área de PPG se destaca na revista C&SC, periódico que expressa o vigor do campo da Saúde Coletiva na produção de conhecimento científico relevante para o SUS e para a saúde da população.

Health policies in Chile (2000-2018): trajectory and conditioning factors

In the 1980s, during the military dictatorship, Chile was a forerunner in Latin America in radical health system reform, expanding the private sector's participation in health insurance and services provision and influencing reforms in other countries of the region. The article analyzes health policies in Chile from 2000 to 2018, in the context of four democratic government administrations, considering continuities and changes in the policies' development and their conditioning factors. The analytical reference drew on contributions from historical institutionalism. Literature and document searches were performed, besides semi-structured interviews with national policymakers from the period under study. Analysis of the trajectory of health policies in Chile during the democratic period revealed continuities and changes in the agendas and strategies adopted by governments with different political positions. Incremental reforms throughout this period produced progress and improvements in health services access and provision. However, reform proposals to alter the health system's public-private arrangement encountered resistance, and the dual and segmented structure shaped in the 1980s was maintained, with strong private participation. Historical-structural, institutional, and political conditioning factors in State-market relations and the health system's configuration under the dictatorship hindered comprehensive changes in public-private relations in health, producing an example of path dependence and corporate interests' power in the health sector.

Struggles for a universal health system in Brazil: successes, obstacles and setbacks

Brazil is a populous middle-income country, characterized by deep economic and social inequalities. Like most Latin American nations, Brazil historically constructed a health system that included, on the one hand, public health programs and, on the other, social insurance healthcare, which only covered formal workers. This study analyzes the implementation of a universal health system from the mid-1980s to the present, focusing on the context, political agendas, government orientations, and actors. Research techniques included a literature review, interviews with national health authorities, analysis of documents and selected health indicators. In the 1980s, against the backdrop of democratization, Brazil's health reform movement proposed a Unified Health System (SUS), which was incorporated into the 1988 Constitution. The combination of a democratic system with opportunities for interaction between various developmental and social agendas and actors has played a key role in shaping health policy since then. However, the expansion of public services has been hampered by insufficient public funding and by the strengthening of the private sector, subsidized by the state. Private enterprises have expanded their markets and political influence, in a process that has accelerated in recent years. Despite these obstacles, SUS has produced significant health-status improvements and some reductions in Brazil's health inequalities. A combination of long-term structural and contingent factors, international agendas and interests, and domestic political struggles, explains the advances and obstacles to building a universal system in an economically important yet unequal peripheral country. Further consolidation of SUS and reduction of health inequalities hinge on the uncertain prospects for democracy and national development, on enlarging the political coalition to support a public and universal health system, and on strengthening the state's ability to regulate the private sector.

Key messages

The implementation of a universal health system in Brazil has favored health improvements but has been hampered by insufficient funding and by state subsidies to the expansion of the private sector. A combination of structural and institutional factors, international and domestic political agendas and interests explains the advances and obstacles to building a universal system in Brazil.

Aging and low-intensity exercise change oxidative biomarkers in brain regions and radiographic measures of femur of Wistar rats

We investigated changes in oxidative biomarkers in brain regions such as brainstem, cerebellum, and cerebral cortex of 3-, 6-, 18-, 24-, and 30-month-old rats. We also assessed the effects of low-intensity exercise on these biomarkers in these regions of 6-, 18-, and 24-month-old rats that started exercise on a treadmill at 3, 15, and 21 months of age, respectively. Radiographic images of the femur were taken for all rats. A total of 25 rats (age: twelve 6-, ten 18-, ten 24-, and three 30-month-old rats) were used. Lipid hydroperoxide levels increased in cerebellum at 18 months. Total antioxidant activity exhibited lowest values in brainstem at 3 months. Superoxide dismutase activity did not exhibit significant changes during aging. Total thiol content exhibited lowest values in brain regions of 24- and 30-month-old rats. Exercise reduced total thiol content in brainstem at 6 months, but no change occurred in other regions and other ages. Femur increased its length and width and cortical thickness with advancing age. No change occurred in medullary width. Radiolucency increased and sclerosis was found in cortical and medullary bone with advancing age. Exercise reduced radiolucency and medullary sclerosis. Therefore, aging differentially changed oxidative biomarkers in different brain regions and radiographic measures of the femur. Low-intensity exercise only ameliorated some radiographic measurements of femur. Since the present study possessed limitations (small number of rats per group), a beneficial effect of regular low-intensity exercise on oxidative markers in brain cannot be ruled out.

Political struggles for a universal health system in Brazil: successes and limits in the reduction of inequalities

Background

Brazil is a populous high/middle-income country, characterized by deep economic and social inequalities. Like most other Latin American nations, Brazil constructed a health system that included, on the one hand, public health programs and, on the other, social insurance healthcare for those working in the formal sector. This study analyzes the political struggles surrounding the implementation of a universal health system from the mid-1980s to the present, and their effects on selected health indicators, focusing on the relevant international and national contexts, political agendas, government orientations and actors.

Main text

In the 1980s, against the backdrop of economic crisis and democratization, Brazil’s health reform movement proposed a Unified Health System (SUS), which was incorporated into the 1988 Constitution. The combination of a democratic system with opportunities for interaction between various developmental and social agendas and actors has played a key role in shaping health policy since then. However, the expansion of public services has been hampered by insufficient public funding and by the strengthening of the private sector, subsidized by the state. Private enterprises have expanded their markets and political influence, in a process that has accelerated in recent years. Despite these obstacles, SUS has produced significant health-status improvements and some (although incomplete) reductions in Brazil’s vast health inequalities.

Conclusions

We find that a combination of long-term structural and contingent factors, international agendas and interests, as well as domestic political struggles, explains the advances and obstacles to building a universal system in an economically important yet unequal peripheral country. Further consolidation of SUS and reduction of health inequalities hinge on the uncertain prospects for democracy and national development, on enlarging the political coalition to support a public and universal health system, and on strengthening the state’s ability to regulate the private sector.

The current challenges of the fight for a universal right to health in Brazil

Brazil has changed a lot since the enactment of the 1988 Federal Constitution. Although substantial advances have occurred in the health sector, old problems persist and new ones arise. The main goal of ensuring the universal right to health has not been achieved. The 16th National Health Conference will be held in 2019, an opportune moment to analyze the history, the present moment and the announcing trends. This text seeks to contribute to this analysis based on the results of studies on the developing health conditions of the population and the Brazilian health system in the last 30 years. It identifies the strengthening of the private sector and capital in the health sector, to the detriment of the public interest and the SUS. Finally, it discusses the strategies of the struggle for the right to health necessary and possible in the current context.

Government coordination of the Tobacco Control Policy in Brazil

This research aimed to analyze the National Committee for the Implementation of the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (CONICQ). The study covered the period from 2003 to 2015 and built on the referential analysis of public policies, considering structure and political process and Committee's agenda and performing capacity. Methodological strategies were documentary analysis, including Committee's minutes of meetings, direct observation of events and interviews with key stakeholders. The regular functioning and gradual expansion of the Committee was observed in the period, permeated by technical and political aspects that influence its structuring and the establishment of the agenda. Conflicts have been identified among CONICQ members and between these and external stakeholders, especially from the clashing opinions on economic and health-related viewpoints. Its capacity for action was limited by internal (from some government agencies) and external (from organizations linked to the tobacco industry and tobacco growers) resistance. CONICQ is a strategic instance to the Brazilian tobacco control policy. However, its activity as an intersectoral coordination mechanism is complex, given the different interests, stances and levels of engagement of agencies involved in tobacco control.

Health Policies in Argentina, Brazil and Mexico: different paths, many challenges

Over recent decades, several Latin American health systems have undergone reforms. This paper analyzes health policies in Argentina, Brazil and Mexico from 1990 to 2014. It explores the reform strategies, explanatory factors and effects on the configuration of each health system. The analytical framework was based on the historical-comparative approach and considered the following aspects: political and economic context; health reform agendas, processes and strategies; changes in the health system configuration in terms of social stratification and de-commodification. The research methods involved literature review, document and data analysis and interviews. In the period, Argentina maintained an employment-based and fragmented healthcare system, expanded specific public programs and private health plans. Brazil created a public and universal health system, which coexists with a dynamic and growing private sector. Mexico maintained the employment-based health care and created a popular health insurance. Although the reform influences and strategies varied between the countries, social stratification and commodification persisted in the three health systems, under different arrangements.The transformation of these characteristics is essential to build universal health systems in Latin America.

Universal health system and universal health coverage: assumptions and strategies

In recent years the international debate about universality in health has been marked by a polarization between ideas based on a universal system, and notions proposing universal health coverage. The concept of universal coverage has been disseminated by international organizations and has been incorporated into health system reforms in several developing countries, including some in Latin America. This article explores the assumptions and strategies related to the proposal of universal health coverage. Firstly, a comparison is provided of the models of universal health coverage and universal health systems. This is followed by a contextualization of the international debate, including examples of different health systems. Finally, the implications of the proposal of universal coverage for the right to health in Brazil are discussed. The analysis of different concepts of universality and the experiences of different countries shows that health insurance-based models, either social or private, are not as satisfactory as public, universal health systems. Greater understanding about ongoing international projects is essential in order to identify the possibilities represented by the consolidation of the Unified Health System (SUS) in Brazil, as well as the risks of dismantling the SUS.

[Governance, intersectoriality and social participation in public policy: the National Council on the Rights of the Elderly]

Aging is a complex phenomenon that requires different types of public policies. In 2002, the National Council for the Rights of the Elderly (CNDI) was created as a governance structure to enhance the guarantee of rights through coordination between sectors of government and civil society. The article seeks to analyze the CNDI based on the description of the institutional configuration and characterization of its operation in the proposal of strategies for implementing and monitoring the main policies for the elderly. The analytical framework of public policy analysis was used, with emphasis on the concept of governance, laws and documents, highlighting the minutes of Council meetings, as well as semi-structured interviews. As a result, it was possible to detect the importance of these spaces that enable the influence and control of institutionalized civil society over the State. However, difficulties of referral of the actions, obstacles in the relationship between the social actors were observed, as well as insufficient involvement of some government agencies. In the context of accelerated demographic changes, social inequalities and vulnerability of the elderly population, this governance strategy per se has not been sufficient to ensure the realization of the rights envisaged.

Descentralização e regionalização da política de saúde: abordagem histórico-comparada entre o Brasil e a Espanha

Resumo Este artigo aborda os processos de descentralização e regionalização da política de saúde no Brasil e na Espanha entre 1980 e 2015. Valendo-se de contribuições do institucionalismo histórico e do método histórico-comparado, o estudo foi desenvolvido a partir de três dimensões de análise: contexto estatal; trajetória e institucionalidade da descentralização e regionalização da saúde; e condicionantes. O estudo evidenciou que, em ambos os países, o contexto mais geral de redemocratização e descentralização do Estado condicionou as reformas dos sistemas de saúde e sua organização político-administrativa. Além disso, fatores históricos, institucionais e políticos repercutiram, de modo específico em cada caso, influenciando a organização regional dos serviços, o balanço de poder e a divisão de responsabilidades entre as esferas governamentais na gestão, financiamento e coordenação da política de saúde. O estudo sugere que o modo como estes fatores se interrelacionaram no tempo importa para a compreensão da descentralização e regionalização dos sistemas de saúde em diferentes contextos.

Programas de Transferência de Renda com Condicionalidades: Brasil e México em perspectiva comparada

RESUMO Na década de 1980, a América Latina vivenciou crises econômicas, com programas de ajuste estrutural e aumento do desemprego, que acentuaram a pobreza e as desigualdades sociais. Posteriormente, diversos países adotaram Programas de Transferência de Renda com Condicionalidades, em um cenário de ênfase das políticas sociais no combate à pobreza. No México e no Brasil, tais programas foram antecedidos por outras iniciativas de transferência de renda para os pobres, iniciadas, respectivamente, nas décadas de 1980 e 1990. O objetivo do estudo foi analisar os programas Bolsa Família do Brasil (criado em 2004) e Oportunidades do México (criado em 2002). O referencial de análise baseou-se na perspectiva histórico-comparativa, e utilizaram-se como técnicas de pesquisa revisão bibliográfica, análise documental, análise de dados secundários e entrevistas semiestruturadas. Observaram-se diferenças entre os programas quanto aos objetivos, desenho e condicionalidades, inclusive de saúde. Apesar de alguns efeitos positivos sobre indicadores de renda, de saúde e de educação, tais programas são limitados para o enfrentamento da pobreza.

Tobacco Control Policies in Brazil: a 30-year assessment

The article presents a review of Brazilian tobacco control policies from 1986 to 2016, based on contributions from political economics and analyses of public policies. The institutionalization of tobacco control in the country was marked by more general changes in health policies and by specific events related to the theme. Brazil's international leadership role, a robust National Tobacco Control Policy, the role of civil society and the media all contributed to the success of tobacco control in this country. However, challenges remain regarding crop diversification in tobacco farms, illegal trade in cigarettes, pressure from the tobacco industry and the sustainability of the Policy. This study reinforces the importance of bearing in mind the relationship between the domestic and international context, and the articulation between different governmental and non-governmental sectors and players when analyzing complex health policies. Continuity and consolidation of the tobacco control policies depend on the persistence of a broad institutional framework to guide the State's actions in social protection, in accordance with Unified Healthcare System guidelines.

Trajetória da política de controle do tabaco no Brasil de 1986 a 2016

O estudo analisa a política brasileira de controle do tabaco entre 1986 e 2016, buscando caracterizar a trajetória da política e discutir os seus avanços, limites e desafios. Adotaram-se a perspectiva da economia política e contribuições do referencial de análise de políticas públicas. Realizou-se análise bibliográfica, documental, de dados secundários e de entrevistas semiestruturadas com atores envolvidos na política. Fatores relacionados ao contexto nacional e internacional, ao processo político e ao conteúdo da política influenciaram a institucionalidade do controle do tabaco no país. Ressaltam-se a consolidação da rejeição social ao tabagismo, a estruturação governamental da política, a atuação da sociedade civil e o prestígio do Brasil no cenário internacional. Medidas intersetoriais de controle do tabaco, como o aumento de preços e impostos de cigarros, a promoção de ambientes livres do fumo e a adoção de advertências sobre os malefícios do tabagismo contribuíram para a expressiva redução da prevalência de fumantes no período. A implementação da Convenção-Quadro para Controle do Tabaco da Organização Mundial da Saúde no Brasil, a partir de 2006, contribuiu para a expansão e consolidação da política nacional. No entanto, interesses econômicos relacionados ao tabaco limitaram a implementação de algumas ações estratégicas. Entre os desafios, destacam-se a sustentabilidade do controle do tabaco a médio e longo prazos e a superação das barreiras relacionadas à diversificação em áreas plantadas de fumo, ao combate ao comércio ilícito de cigarros e à interferência da indústria do fumo na política.

Políticas de saúde no Brasil em tempos contraditórios: caminhos e tropeços na construção de um sistema universal

Resumo: O artigo analisa a trajetória de condução nacional da política de saúde no Brasil de 1990 a 2016, bem como explora as contradições e os condicionantes da política no período. Observaram-se continuidades e mudanças no contexto, processo e conteúdo da política em cinco diferentes momentos. A análise dos condicionantes da política mostrou que o marco constitucional, os arranjos institucionais e a ação de atores setoriais foram fundamentais para a expansão de programas e serviços públicos, que conferiram materialidade e ampliaram a base de apoio ao Sistema Único de Saúde no âmbito setorial. No entanto, limites histórico-estruturais, legados institucionais e a disputa de projetos para o setor influenciaram a política nacional. A interação desses condicionantes explica as contradições na política do período, por exemplo, no que se refere à inserção da saúde no modelo de desenvolvimento e na Seguridade Social, ao caráter do financiamento e das relações público-privadas em saúde. A ampliação dos serviços públicos ocorreu de forma concomitante ao fortalecimento de segmentos privados, configurando mercados dinâmicos em saúde, que disputam os recursos do Estado e das famílias, restringem a possibilidade de consolidação de um sistema de saúde universal, reiteram a estratificação social e as desigualdades em saúde.

O Programa Bolsa Família e as condicionalidades de saúde: desafios da coordenação intergovernamental e intersetorial

RESUMO A existência de condicionalidades de saúde em programas de transferência de renda é controversa e exige coordenação entre áreas sociais. O objetivo do estudo foi discutir as condicionalidades de saúde do Programa Bolsa Família, considerando as diretrizes nacionais, as relações intergovernamentais e intersetoriais. Envolveu revisão bibliográfica, análise documental, análise de dados secundários e realização de 20 entrevistas. Observaram-se fragilidades nas relações entre esferas de governo e setores na gestão do programa. Não houve evidências de que a existência e o acompanhamento das condicionalidades da saúde per se contribuam para o direito à saúde e interrupção do ciclo de pobreza.

[Public-private relations in the Colombian health system from 1991 to 2015]

The case of Colombia's health system exemplifies the neoliberal reforms conducted in Latin America, characterized by the private sector's broad participation in the administration of resources and provision of health services. The system includes a set of benefits for persons that can afford to pay and a package of basic services with state financing for poor persons. This study aimed to analyze the public-private arrangements in the Colombian health system from 1991 and 2015, including the dimensions of insurance and financing. A case study was performed that included a literature review and analysis of documents and secondary data. The results suggest that the 1993 reform conceived of health as a public service to be provided by the market. There were changes in the state's role, delegating health care functions to the private sector through regulatory and contractual measures. Beginning in 2000, incremental reforms included instrumental changes in the system, while other initiatives aimed to expand the state's responsibilities in guaranteeing the right to health. In terms of health insurance, the main advances were the expansion of insurance coverage and harmonization of baskets of benefits between different insurance systems (although late). As for financing, there are important inequities in per capita spending between the different insurance systems and inefficiency in the financial intermediation. The Colombian case underscores the limits of structuring health systems with heavy market participation, and the study contributes to the debate on the challenges for social protection in health in Latin American countries.

[Socioeconomic conditions, physician supply, and ambulatory care sensitive hospitalization in large Brazilian cities]

Ambulatory care sensitive hospitalizations have been used as an indicator of the effectiveness of primary health care. The research involved a descriptive analysis of the evolution of national indicators from 1998 to 2012 and a cross-sectional study of Brazilian municipalities with populations greater than 50,000, by region of the country, for the year 2012, using correlation and linear regression statistical techniques. There was a slight decline in the proportion of ambulatory care sensitive hospitalizations in Brazil. Socioeconomic and demographic factors and physician supply in the healthcare system are associated with the proportion of ambulatory care sensitive hospitalizations, differing by region of the country. Despite advances in the expansion of the Family Health Strategy, some challenges remain, including better distribution of physicians and other health professionals in the country and effective changes in the healthcare model.

Atenção pré-hospitalar móvel às urgências: análise de implantação no estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil

Resumo O atendimento às urgências tem como componente primordial a atenção pré-hospitalar móvel. O objetivo do estudo foi analisar a implantação do Serviço de Atendimento Móvel de Urgência (SAMU) no estado do Rio de Janeiro. A metodologia envolveu análise documental, visitas a seis Centrais de Regulação do SAMU e realização de entrevistas semiestruturadas com 12 gestores estaduais e locais da área de urgências. O referencial analítico foi a Teoria da Estruturação de Giddens. Observaram-se conflitos intergovernamentais entre estado e municípios e entre municípios. Apesar da insuficiência de leitos, os SAMU do interior do estado estavam mais articulados à rede de atenção às urgências do que os metropolitanos. Os comitês gestores eram pouco ativos e a atuação do estado frágil no financiamento, na gestão e no monitoramento. Conclui-se que o processo de implantação dos SAMU no estado foi marcado por tensões políticas e fragilidades de gestão e coordenação. Em consequência, persistem sérios limites na articulação dos SAMU com os demais serviços e na regionalização da atenção às urgências no estado.

[Workforce management in Emergency Care Units: government strategies and profile of healthcare professionals]

In the late 2000s, the expansion of Emergency Care Units (UPAs) in Brazil's policy for provision of urgent healthcare included hiring a large contingent of health professionals. This article analyzes government strategies for workforce management and the profile of these professionals in the UPAs in the State of Rio de Janeiro, which has the largest number of such units in the country. The methods included document analysis, interviews with managers, and visits to the UPAs and interviews with coordinators, physicians, and nurses. The results showed that the workforce management strategies varied over time and according to administrative sphere (state versus municipal). The so-called Social Organizations became the main hirers of health professionals in the UPAs, since they allowed management flexibility. However, there were problems with selection and stability, with a predominance of young professionals with limited experience and high physician turnover. Instability associated with outsourced hiring reinforced the view of work at the UPA as a temporary job.

[WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control: adherence and establishment in Latin America]

OBJECTIVE

To draw an overview of the adherence of countries around the world to the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC) and to describe the establishment of WHO FCTC recommended measures in Latin American countries.

METHODS

This descriptive study was based on analysis of documents and secondary data to determine the status of countries from the six WHO regions regarding adherence to the FCTC. After that, the establishment of recommended measures until the year 2012 was mapped in all States Parties and particularly in 12 Latin American States Parties. Finally, the degree to which FCTC measures had been established in Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Venezuela was assessed (incipient, intermediate, or advanced). This step took into consideration the measures covered by four domains - reduction in the demand for tobacco, reduction in the offer of tobacco, reduction in damage to the environment and to the health of people caused by tobacco, and support for quitting the use of tobacco.

RESULTS

Until August 2015, 180 countries had joined as States Parties to the FCTC. Considering the 126 countries that submitted global progress reports in the 2012 cycle, the most prevalent measures adopted referred to the protection against exposure to tobacco smoke (83.0% for all countries and 100% for the group of Latin American countries). Among the five countries selected for detailed analysis, the measures referring to the reduction of demand and offer of tobacco were the most frequent. Measures focused on reducing environmental damage were rare. Brazil and Mexico had the most advanced FCTC status among the studied countries.

CONCLUSIONS

Latin America presented a high proportion of States Parties with established FCTC recommended measures. The heterogeneity of the FCTC status in the five selected countries suggests that the implementation of tobacco control policies depends on specific aspects of each country.

The dental pulp stem cell niche based on aldehyde dehydrogenase 1 expression

AIM

To detect cells expressing the stem cell marker ALDH1 (aldehyde dehydrogenase1) in the pulp of human permanent teeth and to investigate the expression of ALDH1 in isolated dental pulp cells.

METHODOLOGY

Pulp tissue was collected and processed for immunohistochemistry to detect ALDH1-, STRO-1- and CD90-positive cells. In addition, cells were isolated and analysed by flow cytometry for ALDH1 activity and for the cell surface markers CD44, CD73, CD90, STRO-1 and CD45. Cells were also examined for multidifferentiation capacity. Within these cells, an ALDH1(+) cell subpopulation was selected and evaluated for multidifferentiation capacity.

RESULTS

The immunohistochemistry analyses showed that ALDH1-, CD90- and STRO-1-positive cells were located mainly in the perivascular areas and nerve fibres of dental pulps. Cells on the fifth passage had high expression for CD44, CD73 and CD90, whereas moderate labelling was observed for STRO-1 and ALDH1 in flow cytometry analysis. On the same passages, cells were able to differentiate into osteogenic, adipogenic and chondrogenic lineages. The ALDH1(+) cell subpopulation also demonstrated multilineage differentiation ability.

CONCLUSIONS

Dental pulp stem cells reside in the vicinity of blood vessels and nerve fibres, indicating the possible existence of more than one stem cell niche in dental pulps. Furthermore, ALDH1 was expressed by isolated dental pulp cells, which had mesenchymal stem cell characteristics. Thus, it can be suggested that ALDH1 may be used as a DPSC marker.

A atenção primária em saúde na agenda da organização panamericana de saúde nos anos 2000

O artigo aborda a agenda da Organização Pan-Americana da Saúde para a atenção primária em saúde e suas possíveis implicações na proteção social na América Latina nos anos 2000. O estudo, de natureza exploratória, partiu da literatura sobre proteção social e compreendeu como estratégias metodológicas a revisão bibliográfica e a análise documental, cujo referencial técnico foi a análise de retórica. A pesquisa procurou identificar as concepções e significados subjacentes à proposta de 'atenção primária em saúde renovada' no que concerne à perspectiva da proteção social, considerando três aspectos: a população-alvo (universal ou focalizada), o escopo (abrangente ou restrito) e a forma de organização dos serviços (relações público—privadas). Os resultados indicam que a agenda política da Organização Pan-Americana da Saúde apresenta historicamente continuidades e descontinuidades. O movimento de renovação da atenção primária em saúde expressa uma inflexão importante nessa agenda, pois sugere uma visão da atenção primária em saúde como estratégia de reestruturação dos sistemas nacionais de saúde, para além da abordagem programática. Porém, no que se refere à proteção social, as propostas apresentadas parecem compatíveis com diferentes arranjos de sistemas de saúde no que tange à concepção sobre o universalismo, o escopo das ações e as parcerias público-privadas.

Federalism and health policy: the intergovernmental committees in Brazil

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the dynamics of operation of the Bipartite Committees in health care in the Brazilian states.

METHODS

The research included visits to 24 states, direct observation, document analysis, and performance of semi-structured interviews with state and local leaders. The characterization of each committee was performed between 2007 and 2010, and four dimensions were considered: (i) level of institutionality, classified as advanced, intermediate, or incipient; (ii) agenda of intergovernmental negotiations, classified as diversified/restricted, adapted/not adapted to the reality of each state, and shared/unshared between the state and municipalities; (iii) political processes, considering the character and scope of intergovernmental relations; and (iv) capacity of operation, assessed as high, moderate, or low.

RESULTS

Ten committees had advanced level of institutionality. The agenda of the negotiations was diversified in all states, and most of them were adapted to the state reality. However, one-third of the committees showed power inequalities between the government levels. Cooperative and interactive intergovernmental relations predominated in 54.0% of the states. The level of institutionality, scope of negotiations, and political processes influenced Bipartite Committees' ability to formulate policies and coordinate health care at the federal level. Bipartite Committees with a high capacity of operation predominated in the South and Southeast regions, while those with a low capacity of operations predominated in the North and Northeast.

CONCLUSIONS

The regional differences in operation among Bipartite Interagency Committees suggest the influence of historical-structural variables (socioeconomic development, geographic barriers, characteristics of the health care system) in their capacity of intergovernmental health care management. However, structural problems can be overcome in some states through institutional and political changes. The creation of federal investments, varied by regions and states, is critical in overcoming the structural inequalities that affect political institutions. The operation of Bipartite Committees is a step forward; however, strengthening their ability to coordinate health care is crucial in the regional organization of the health care system in the Brazilian states.

Federal funding of health policy in Brazil: trends and challenges

The article analyzes Federal funding of health policy in Brazil in the 2000s, focusing on the Ministry of Health’s budget implementation. Federal spending on health was less unstable between 2000 and 2002 and has expanded since 2006. However, it fluctuated as a share of both the Gross Domestic Product and Gross National Revenue. Federal intergovernmental transfers increased, exceeding 70% in 2007. Meanwhile, the proportion of Federal investments remained low, varying from 3.4% to 6.3%. The highest absolute amount of spending was on specialized outpatient and hospital care. The decade showed a proportionally greater increase in spending on pharmaceutical care. The growing allocation of Federal funds to States in the North and Northeast, especially for primary care and epidemiological surveillance, failed to offset the sharp regional inequalities in per capita Federal spending. The main characteristics of health funding limit Federal health policy governance and pose several challenges for the Brazilian Unified National Health System.

[Regionalization and access to healthcare in Brazilian states: historical and political-institutional conditioning factors]

This article examines the healthcare regionalization process in the Brazilian states in the period from 2007 to 2010, seeking to identify the conditions that favor or impede this process. Referential analysis of public policies and especially of historical institutionalism was used. Three dimensions sum up the conditioning factors of regionalization: context (historical-structural, political-institutional and conjunctural), directionality (ideology, object, actors, strategies and instruments) and regionalization features (institutionality and governance). The empirical research relied mainly on the analysis of official documents and interviews with key actors in 24 states. Distinct patterns of influence in the states were observed, with regionalization being marked by important gains in institutionality and governance in the period. Nevertheless, inherent difficulties of the contexts prejudice greater advances. There is a pressing need to broaden the territorial focus in government planning and to integrate sectorial policies for medium and long-term regional development in order to empower regionalization and to overcome obstacles to the access to healthcare services in Brazil.

The current scenario of emergency care policies in Brazil

BACKGROUND

The regulation of emergency care has featured prominently in Brazil's federal health agenda since the 2000s. The aim of this study was to review up to the present day the implementation of the National Emergency Care Policy.

METHODS

The methods employed were documental review, analysis of official data and 11 interviews conducted with federal, state and local managers. The results were analyzed using Giddens' Structuration Theory, relating the cognitive abilities of the agents to their action strategies, in view of the structural dimensions, rules and resources provided by the federal administration.

RESULTS

Federal policy for emergency care in Brazil can be divided into three stages: from 1998 to 2003, the initial regulation; from 2004 to 2008, the expansion of the Mobile Emergency Medical Services (SAMU, in Brazil); and from 2009 onwards, the implementation of stationary pre-hospital care facilities, known as Emergency Care Units (UPA). The structuration elements identified for the emergency care policy were the public health system guidelines, legislation, standards and federal financing. Significant restrictions were found such as lack of hospital beds and intensive care treatment, gaps in the information system for producing evidence for management, ineffective Management Committees, as well as a low degree of commitment among physicians to the services.

CONCLUSION

Considering the financial constraints imposed on the SUS (Brazilian Unified Health System), emergency care was identified as a political priority with financial support. The individual actions by emergency care workers and governmental agents typified the first period of the policy, structuring the basis and producing changes in the circumstances of action. Federal strategies can be equated to the rules and resources provided to support the implementation process of the policy.

As emendas parlamentares no orçamento federal da saúde

O orçamento público brasileiro passou por mudanças na Constituição Federal de 1988. Instituíram-se mecanismos para integração das atividades de planejamento e orçamento, e definiram-se formas de participação do Poder Legislativo no processo orçamentário. As emendas parlamentares surgem nesse contexto. O artigo discute a participação das emendas no orçamento federal da saúde no período de 1997 a 2006, reunindo elementos para a análise dos mecanismos de financiamento e planejamento setorial. Verificou-se uma participação significativa das emendas no período, reunindo mais da metade dos recursos de investimento em alguns anos. A Região Norte destaca-se pelo aporte de recursos, indicando a necessidade de estudos que aprofundem a relação entre destino de emendas e coalizões político-partidárias. Conclui-se que as emendas não podem ser compreendidas apenas como um mecanismo de financiamento, mas também como um mecanismo da política, não estando submetidas obrigatoriamente à lógica do planejamento, o que reforça a necessidade de maior transparência do poder público na execução orçamentária.

Descentralização e regionalização: dinâmica e condicionantes da implantação do Pacto pela Saúde no Brasil

A descentralização e a regionalização representam diretrizes constitucionais de organização do Sistema Único de Saúde que exigiram, nos últimos vinte anos, a adoção de mecanismos de coordenação e acomodação das tensões federativas em saúde no Brasil. O artigo analisa a implantação nacional do Pacto pela Saúde, estratégia que reconfigura as relações intergovernamentais no setor, de 2006 a 2010. A pesquisa envolveu análise de documentos, de dados oficiais e realização de entrevistas com dirigentes federais, estaduais e municipais nos estados brasileiros. Inicialmente discorre-se sobre o conteúdo da proposta nacional e seus desdobramentos para a política de saúde. A seguir, analisam-se os diferentes ritmos e graus de implantação do Pacto pela Saúde, no que concerne à adesão dos estados e municípios e à conformação de Colegiados de Gestão Regional. Por fim, sistematizam-se os fatores condicionantes da multiplicidade das experiências observadas no país e discutem-se os desafios para o avanço da descentralização e da regionalização no sistema de saúde brasileiro.

[Health and territorialization from the perpective of development]

The relationship between health and development is complex and lies in the field of political economy, given that it involves different social, political, and economic interests. In the Brazilian case, this association is particularly relevant in terms of the territorial dimension, in light of the central role of healthcare services in the organization of the urban network and the demarcation of territorial schedules and limits. In the theoretical-conceptual field, this study explores analytical areas that approach the relations between health and development, as well as between health and the territorial issue; and analyzes the history of the decentralization and regionalization policy in the Unified National Health System (SUS) and Federal investments that constitute the basis for its spatial evolution. Based on this conceptual review and empirical data, the study attempts to establish theoretical and political-institutional connections between health and development. The aim is thus to support the discussion on challenges facing a new role for health in the Brazilian development model, historically marked by economic and social inequalities with strong territorial overtones.

Mobile Emergency Care Service: analysis of Brazilian policy

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the configuration of mobile emergency health care policy in Brazil.

METHODOLOGICAL PROCEDURES

The study was based on public policy analysis. Bibliographic and document review, analysis of official data and interviews with federal administrators related to formulation and implementation of the Mobile Emergency Care Service (SAMU) in Brazil in the 2000s were performed.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

Priority was given to SAMU at the federal level since 2003. During the first years of implementation, municipal level services predominated; in 2008, services with regional scope became more significant. Estimated coverage reached 53.9% of the population in 2009, in 20.5% of Brazilian municipalities. Implementation varied between States, and there were less advanced support ambulances than recommended, both nationally and in several States.

CONCLUSIONS

SAMU was adopted nationwide since 2003 upon development of federal norms. Implementation of the policy involves challenges, including adequate investment, integration of the service into an established urgent care network, arrangement of appropriate information systems and personnel capacity. Addressing these challenges will allow SAMU to become a key health care strategy in the unified health system.