Identification and characterization of the causative agents of Focal Ulcerative Dermatitis in commercial laying hens

Focal Ulcerative Dermatitis (FUDS) is an emerging dermatological disease that affects cage-free laying flocks, it is characterized by the development of a lesion on the dorsum of the birds; FUDS is sporadic in nature and can result in a drop in egg production and up to 50% of cumulative mortality. A total of two cage-free flocks (flock 1: no history of FUDS; flock 2: birds affected with FUDS) from a commercial laying hen operation in the mid-west U.S. were sampled in this study. The microbial composition of skin, cloacal, cecal, and ileal samples from each bird was characterized through next generation sequencing (NGS). Results identified Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus agnetis as the potential causative agents of FUDS, being the most predominant in FUDS positive birds. These results were confirmed by plating, with both staphylococci as the only pathogens isolated from lesions of FUDS positive birds. A total of 68 confirmed Staphylococcus isolates from skin and environmental samples were further analyzed by whole genome sequencing (WGS) for the presence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes and virulence factors that could have contributed to the development of FUDS. Forty-four-point one-two percent of the isolates had between one and four acquired AMR genes encoding for macrolides, lincosamides, spectrogramines, and beta-lactams resistance. Six classes of virulence factors associated with adherence, enzyme, immune evasion, secretion system, toxin, and iron uptake were identified. The antimicrobial effect of 4 proprietary Bacillus Direct Fed Microbial (DFM) combinations was evaluated against the Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus agnetis isolates, by agar well-diffusion (AWD) assay and competitive exclusion (CE) on broth culture. Through this antimicrobial screening, a particular two-strain combination of Bacillus pumilus was identified as the most effective inhibitor of both staphylococci. A customized Bacillus pumilus product is being used at different farms with history of FUDS resulting in the successful inhibition of both Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus agnetis, decreasing FUDS mortalities, and improving harvestable eggs.

Production of the alkaloid swainsonine by a fungal endophyte in the host Swainsona canescens

Legumes belonging to the Astragalus, Oxytropis, and Swainsona genera have been noted by ranchers in the Americas, Asia, and Australia to cause a neurologic disease often referred to as locoism or peastruck. The toxin in these legumes is swainsonine, an α-mannosidase and mannosidase II inhibitor. Recent research has shown that in Astragalus and Oxytropis species swainsonine is produced by a fungal endophyte belonging to the Undifilum genus. Here Swainsona canescens is shown to harbor an endophyte that is closely related to Undifilum species previously cultured from locoweeds of North America and Asia. The endophyte produces swainsonine in vitro and was detected by PCR and culturing in S. canescens. The endophyte isolated from S. canescens was characterized as an Undifilum species using morphological and phylogenetic analyses.

Influence of endophyte genotype on swainsonine concentrations in Oxytropis sericea

Locoism is a toxic syndrome of livestock caused by the ingestion of a subset of legumes belonging to the Astragalus and Oxytropis genera known as "locoweeds". Locoweeds contain the toxic indolizidine alkaloid swainsonine, which is produced by the endophytic fungi Undifilum species. Previously we reported that swainsonine concentrations differ between populations of Oxytropis sericea. We hypothesized that the genotype of the plant, endophyte, or an interaction of the two may be responsible for the differences in swainsonine concentration between populations of O. sericea. To test this hypothesis, plants derived from seeds collected at each location were grown in a common garden, Undifilum oxytropis isolates from each location were cultured and grown in a common environment, and a plant genotype by endophyte cross inoculation was performed. Here we show that the genotype of the endophyte is responsible for the differences in swainsonine concentrations observed in the two populations of O. sericea.

Influence of seed endophyte amounts on swainsonine concentrations in Astragalus and Oxytropis locoweeds

Locoism is a toxic syndrome of livestock caused by the ingestion of a subset of legumes known as locoweeds endemic to arid and semiarid regions of the western United States. Locoweeds contain the toxic alkaloid swainsonine, which is produced by the endophytic fungi Undifilum species. Two chemotypes of plants can coexist within toxic populations of locoweeds: chemotype 1 plants are defined as individuals containing swainsonine concentrations greater than 0.01% and quantitatively greater amounts of Undifilum, while chemotype 2 plants are defined as individuals containing less than 0.01% swainsonine and quantitatively smaller amounts of Undifilum. To elucidate the mechanisms that govern chemotypes, the amount of Undifilum in seeds/embryos was manipulated, thus altering subsequent swainsonine concentrations in three locoweed species: Astragalus mollissimus, Astragalus lentiginosus, and Oxytropis sericea. Chemotype 1 seeds that were fungicide-treated or had the seed coat removed resulted in plants with swainsonine concentrations comparable to those in chemotype 2 plants. Conversely, embryos from seeds of chemotypes 1 and 2 that were inoculated with the endophyte resulted in plants with swainsonine concentrations comparable to those of chemotype 1 plants. This reproducible interconversion between the two swainsonine chemotypes suggests that the quantity of endophyte present in the seed at the time of germination is a key determinant of the eventual chemotype. Additionally, this is the first report of the inoculation of locoweeds with the endophyte Undifilum species.