Probing Catalyst Degradation in Metathesis of Internal Olefins: Expanding Access to Amine-Tagged ROMP Polymers

Ruthenium-promoted ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP) offers potentially powerful routes to amine-functionalized polymers with antimicrobial, adhesive, and self-healing properties. However, amines readily degrade the methylidene and unsubstituted ruthenacyclobutane intermediates formed in metathesis of terminal olefins. Examined herein is the relevance of these decomposition pathways to ROMP (i.e., metathesis of internal olefins) by the third-generation Grubbs catalyst. Primary alkylamines rapidly quench polymerization via fast adduct formation, followed by nucleophilic abstraction of the propagating alkylidene. Bulkier, Brønsted-basic amines are less aggressive: attack competes only for slow polymerization or strong bases (e.g., DBU). Added HCl limits degradation, as demonstrated by the successful ROMP of an otherwise intractable methylamine monomer.

Mesomeric Acceleration Counters Slow Initiation of Ruthenium–CAAC Catalysts for Olefin Metathesis (CAAC = Cyclic (Alkyl)(Amino) Carbene)

Ruthenium catalysts bearing cyclic (alkyl)(amino)carbene (CAAC) ligands can attain very high productivities in olefin metathesis, owing to their resistance to unimolecular decomposition. Because the propagating methylidene species RuCl₂(CAAC)(=CH₂) is extremely susceptible to bimolecular decomposition, however, turnover numbers in the metathesis of terminal olefins are highly sensitive to catalyst concentration, and hence loadings. Understanding how, why, and how rapidly the CAAC complexes partition between the precatalyst and the active species is thus critical. Examined in a dual experimental-computational study are the rates and basis of initiation for phosphine-free catalysts containing the leading CAAC ligand C1 ^Ph , in which a CMePh group α to the carbene carbon helps retard degradation. The Hoveyda-class complex HC1 ^Ph (RuCl₂(L)(=CHAr), where L = C1 ^Ph , Ar = C₆H₃-2-O ⁱ Pr-5-R; R = H) is compared with its nitro-Grela analogue (nG-C1 ^Ph ; R = NO₂) and the classic Hoveyda catalyst HII (L = H₂IMes; R = H). t-Butyl vinyl ether (tBuVE) was employed as substrate, to probe the reactivity of these catalysts toward olefins of realistic bulk. Initiation is ca. 100× slower for HC1 ^Ph than HII in C₆D₆, or 44× slower in CDCl₃. The rate-limiting step for the CAAC catalyst is cycloaddition; for HII, it is tBuVE binding. Initiation is 10-13× faster for nG-C1 ^Ph than HC1 ^Ph in either solvent. DFT analysis reveals that this rate acceleration originates in an overlooked role of the nitro group. Rather than weakening the Ru-ether bond, as widely presumed, the NO₂ group accelerates the ensuing, rate-limiting cycloaddition step. Faster reaction is caused by long-range mesomeric effects that modulate key bond orders and Ru-ligand distances, and thereby reduce the trans effect between the carbene and the trans-bound alkene in the transition state for cycloaddition. Mesomeric acceleration may plausibly be introduced via any of the ligands present, and hence offers a powerful, tunable control element for catalyst design.

Water-Accelerated Decomposition of Olefin Metathesis Catalysts

Water is ubiquitous in olefin metathesis, at levels ranging from contaminant to cosolvent. It is also non-benign. Water-promoted catalyst decomposition competes with metathesis, even for "robust" ruthenium catalysts. Metathesis is hence typically noncatalytic for demanding reactions in water-rich environments (e.g., chemical biology), a challenge as the Ru decomposition products promote unwanted reactions such as DNA degradation. To date, only the first step of the decomposition cascade is understood: catalyst aquation. Here we demonstrate that the aqua species dramatically accelerate both β-elimination of the metallacyclobutane intermediate and bimolecular decomposition of four-coordinate [RuCl(H₂O)_n(L)(=CHR)]Cl. Decomposition can be inhibited by blocking aquation and β-elimination.

The Janus face of high trans-effect carbenes in olefin metathesis: gateway to both productivity and decomposition

Ruthenium–cyclic(alkyl)(amino)carbene (CAAC) catalysts, used at ppm levels, can enable dramatically higher productivities in olefin metathesis than their N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) predecessors. A key reason is the reduced susceptibility of the metallacyclobutane (MCB) intermediate to decomposition via β-H elimination. The factors responsible for promoting or inhibiting β-H elimination are explored via density functional theory (DFT) calculations, in metathesis of ethylene or styrene (a representative 1-olefin) by Ru–CAAC and Ru–NHC catalysts. Natural bond orbital analysis of the frontier orbitals confirms the greater strength of the orbital interactions for the CAAC species, and the consequent increase in the carbene trans influence and trans effect. The higher trans effect of the CAAC ligands inhibits β-H elimination by destabilizing the transition state (TS) for decomposition, in which an agostic MCB C_β–H bond is positioned trans to the carbene. Unproductive cycling with ethylene is also curbed, because ethylene is trans to the carbene ligand in the square pyramidal TS for ethylene metathesis. In contrast, metathesis of styrene proceeds via a ‘late’ TS with approximately trigonal bipyramidal geometry, in which carbene trans effects are reduced. Importantly, however, the positive impact of a strong trans-effect ligand in limiting β-H elimination is offset by its potent accelerating effect on bimolecular coupling, a major competing means of catalyst decomposition. These two decomposition pathways, known for decades to limit productivity in olefin metathesis, are revealed as distinct, antinomic, responses to a single underlying phenomenon. Reconciling these opposing effects emerges as a clear priority for design of robust, high-performing catalysts.

In ruthenium catalysts for olefin metathesis, carbene ligands of high trans influence/effect suppress decomposition via β-H elimination, but increase susceptibility to bimolecular decomposition.

Bimolecular Coupling in Olefin Metathesis: Correlating Structure and Decomposition for Leading and Emerging Ruthenium-Carbene Catalysts

Bimolecular catalyst decomposition is a fundamental, long-standing challenge in olefin metathesis. Emerging ruthenium-cyclic(alkyl)(amino)carbene (CAAC) catalysts, which enable breakthrough advances in productivity and general robustness, are now known to be extraordinarily susceptible to this pathway. The details of the process, however, have hitherto been obscure. The present study provides the first detailed mechanistic insights into the steric and electronic factors that govern bimolecular decomposition. Described is a combined experimental and theoretical study that probes decomposition of the key active species, RuCl2(L)(py)(═CH2) 1 (in which L is the N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) H2IMes, or a CAAC ligand: the latter vary in the NAr group (NMes, N-2,6-Et2C6H3, or N-2-Me,6-iPrC6H3) and the substituents on the quaternary site flanking the carbene carbon (i.e., CMe2 or CMePh)). The transiently stabilized pyridine adducts 1 were isolated by cryogenic synthesis of the metallacyclobutanes, addition of pyridine, and precipitation. All are shown to decompose via second-order kinetics at -10 °C. The most vulnerable CAAC species, however, decompose more than 1000-fold faster than the H2IMes analogue. Computational studies reveal that the key factor underlying accelerated decomposition of the CAAC derivatives is their stronger trans influence, which weakens the Ru-py bond and increases the transient concentration of the 14-electron methylidene species, RuCl2(L)(═CH2) 2. Fast catalyst initiation, a major design goal in olefin metathesis, thus has the negative consequence of accelerating decomposition. Inhibiting bimolecular decomposition offers major opportunities to transform catalyst productivity and utility, and to realize the outstanding promise of olefin metathesis.

Routes to High-Performing Ruthenium-Iodide Catalysts for Olefin Metathesis: Ligand Lability Is Key to Efficient Halide Exchange

Clean, high-yielding routes are described to ruthenium-diiodide catalysts that were recently shown to enable high productivity in olefin metathesis. For the second-generation Grubbs and Hoveyda catalysts (GII: RuCl2(H2IMes)(PCy3)(=CHPh); HII: RuCl2(H2IMes)(=CHAr), Ar = C6H4-2-O i Pr), slow salt metathesis is shown to arise from the low lability of the ancillary PCy3 or ether ligands, which retards access to the four-coordinate intermediate required for efficient halide exchange. To exploit the lability of the first-generation catalysts, the diiodide complex RuI2(PCy3)(=CHAr) HI-I 2 was prepared by treating "Grubbs I" (RuCl2(PCy3)2(=CHPh), GI) with NaI, H2C=CHAr (1a), and a phosphine-scavenging Merrifield iodide (MF-I) resin. Subsequent installation of H2IMes or cyclic (alkyl)(amino)carbene (CAAC) ligands afforded the second-generation iodide catalysts in good to excellent yields. Given the incompatibility of the nitro group with a free carbene, the iodo-Grela catalyst RuI2(H2IMes)(=CHAr') (nG-I 2 : Ar' = C6H3-2-O i Pr-4-NO2) was instead accessed by sequential salt metathesis of GI with NaI, installation of H2IMes, and finally cross-metathesis with the nitrostyrenyl ether H2C=CHAr' (1b), with MF-I as the phosphine scavenger. The bulky iodide ligands improve the selectivity for macrocyclization in ring-closing metathesis.

The Impact of Water on Ru-Catalyzed Olefin Metathesis: Potent Deactivating Effects Even at Low Water Concentrations

Ruthenium catalysts for olefin metathesis are widely viewed as water-tolerant. Evidence is presented, however, that even low concentrations of water cause catalyst decomposition, severely degrading yields. Of 11 catalysts studied, fast-initiating examples (e.g., the Grela catalyst RuCl2(H2IMes)(=CHC6H4-2-O i Pr-5-NO2) were most affected. Maximum water tolerance was exhibited by slowly initiating iodide and cyclic (alkyl)(amino)carbene (CAAC) derivatives. Computational investigations indicated that hydrogen bonding of water to substrate can also play a role, by retarding cyclization relative to decomposition. These results have important implications for olefin metathesis in organic media, where water is a ubiquitous contaminant, and for aqueous metathesis, which currently requires superstoichiometric "catalyst" for demanding reactions.

Challenging Metathesis Catalysts with Nucleophiles and Brønsted Base: Examining the Stability of State-of-the-Art Ruthenium Carbene Catalysts to Attack by Amines

Critical to advancing the uptake of olefin metathesis in leading contexts, including pharmaceutical manufacturing, is identification of highly active catalysts that resist decomposition. Amines constitute an aggressive challenge to ruthenium metathesis catalysts. Examined here is the impact of 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene (DBU), morpholine, n-butylamine, and triethylamine on Ru metathesis catalysts that represent the current state of the art, including cyclic alkyl amino carbene (CAAC) and N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) complexes. Accordingly, the amine-tolerance of the nitro-Grela catalyst RuCl₂(H₂IMes)(=CHAr) (nG; Ar = C₆H₄-2-O ⁱ Pr-5-NO₂) is compared with that of its CAAC analogues nGC1 and nGC2, and the Hoveyda-class catalyst RuCl₂(C2)(=CHAr') HC2 (Ar' = C₆H₄-2-O ⁱ Pr). In C1, the carbene carbon is flanked by an N-2,6-Et₂C₆H₃ group and a CMePh quaternary carbon; in C2, by an N-2- ⁱ Pr-6-MeC₆H₃ group and a CMe₂ quaternary carbon. The impact of 1 equiv amine per Ru on turnover numbers (TONs) in ring-closing metathesis of diethyl diallylmalonate was assessed at 9 ppm Ru, at RT and 70 °C. The deleterious impact of amines followed the trend NEt₃ ∼ NH₂ ⁿ Bu ≪ DBU ∼ morpholine. Morpholine is shown to decompose nGC1 by nucleophilic abstraction of the methylidene ligand; DBU, by proton abstraction from the metallacyclobutane. Decomposition was minimized at 70 °C, at which nGC1 enabled TONs of ca. 60 000 even in the presence of morpholine or DBU, vs ca. 80 000 in the absence of base. Unexpectedly, H₂IMes catalyst nG delivered 70-90% of the performance of nGC1 at high temperatures, and underwent decomposition by Brønsted base at a similar rate. Density functional theory (DFT) analysis shows that this similarity is due to comparable net electron donation by the H₂IMes and C1 ligands. Catalysts bearing the smaller C2 ligand were comparatively insensitive to amines, owing to rapid, preferential bimolecular decomposition.

Integrating Activity with Accessibility in Olefin Metathesis: An Unprecedentedly Reactive Ruthenium-Indenylidene Catalyst

Access to leading olefin metathesis catalysts, including the Grubbs, Hoveyda, and Grela catalysts, ultimately rests on the nonscaleable transfer of a benzylidene ligand from an unstable, impure aryldiazomethane. The indenylidene ligand can be reliably installed, but to date yields much less reactive catalysts. A fast-initiating, dimeric indenylidene complex (Ru-1) is reported, which reconciles high activity with scaleable synthesis. Each Ru center in Ru-1 is stabilized by a state-of-the-art cyclic alkyl amino carbene (CAAC, C1) and a bridging chloride donor: the lability of the latter elevates the reactivity of Ru-1 to a level previously attainable only with benzylidene derivatives. Evaluation of initiation rate constants reveals that Ru-1 initiates >250× faster than indenylidene catalyst M2 (RuCl₂(H₂IMes)(PCy₃)(Ind)), and 65× faster than UC (RuCl₂(C1)₂(Ind)). The slow initiation previously regarded as characteristic of indenylidene catalysts is hence due to low ligand lability, not inherently slow cycloaddition at the Ru=CRR' site. In macrocyclization and "ethenolysis" of methyl oleate (i.e., transformation into α-olefins via cross-metathesis with C₂H₄), Ru-1 is comparable or superior to the corresponding, breakthrough CAAC-benzylidene catalyst. In ethenolysis, Ru-1 is 5× more robust to standard-grade (99.9%) C₂H₄ than the top-performing catalyst, probably reflecting steric protection at the quaternary CAAC carbon.

Bimolecular Coupling as a Vector for Decomposition of Fast-Initiating Olefin Metathesis Catalysts

The correlation between rapid initiation and rapid decomposition in olefin metathesis is probed for a series of fast-initiating, phosphine-free Ru catalysts: the Hoveyda catalyst HII, RuCl₂(L)(═CHC₆H₄- o-O ⁱPr); the Grela catalyst nG (a derivative of HII with a nitro group para to O ⁱPr); the Piers catalyst PII, [RuCl₂(L)(═CHPCy₃)]OTf; the third-generation Grubbs catalyst GIII, RuCl₂(L)(py)₂(═CHPh); and dianiline catalyst DA, RuCl₂(L)( o-dianiline)(═CHPh), in all of which L = H₂IMes = N,N'-bis(mesityl)imidazolin-2-ylidene. Prior studies of ethylene metathesis have established that various Ru metathesis catalysts can decompose by β-elimination of propene from the metallacyclobutane intermediate RuCl₂(H₂IMes)(κ²-C₃H₆), Ru-2. The present work demonstrates that in metathesis of terminal olefins, β-elimination yields only ca. 25-40% propenes for HII, nG, PII, or DA, and none for GIII. The discrepancy is attributed to competing decomposition via bimolecular coupling of methylidene intermediate RuCl₂(H₂IMes)(═CH₂), Ru-1. Direct evidence for methylidene coupling is presented, via the controlled decomposition of transiently stabilized adducts of Ru-1, RuCl₂(H₂IMes)L_n(═CH₂) (L_n = py _n'; n' = 1, 2, or o-dianiline). These adducts were synthesized by treating in situ-generated metallacyclobutane Ru-2 with pyridine or o-dianiline, and were isolated by precipitating at low temperature (-116 or -78 °C, respectively). On warming, both undergo methylidene coupling, liberating ethylene and forming RuCl₂(H₂IMes)L_n. A mechanism is proposed based on kinetic studies and molecular-level computational analysis. Bimolecular coupling emerges as an important contributor to the instability of Ru-1, and a potentially major pathway for decomposition of fast-initiating, phosphine-free metathesis catalysts.

Merrifield resin-assisted routes to second-generation catalysts for olefin metathesis

Phosphine-scavenging Merrifield resins can significantly facilitate the synthesis of highly active Ru metathesis catalysts, including the second-generation Grubbs, Hoveyda, and indenylidene catalysts (GII, HII, InII).

Tandem catalysis versus one-pot catalysis: ensuring process orthogonality in the transformation of essential-oil phenylpropenoids into high-value products via olefin isomerization–metathesis

One-pot and tandem catalysis methodologies are explored in developing efficient isomerization–metathesis routes to high-value cinnamates and ferulates from essential-oil allylbenzenes.

The divergent effects of strong NHC donation in catalysis

The inverse relationship between NHC donicity and catalyst initiation.

Strong σ-donation from NHC ligands (NHC = N-heterocyclic carbene) is shown to have profoundly conflicting consequences for the reactivity of transition-metal catalysts. Such donation is regarded as central to high catalyst activity in many contexts, of which the second-generation Grubbs metathesis catalysts (RuCl₂(NHC)(PCy₃)( Created by potrace 1.16, written by Peter Selinger 2001-2019 ]]> CHPh), GII) offer an early, prominent example. Less widely recognized is the dramatically inhibiting impact of NHC ligation on initiation of GII, and on re-entry into the catalytic cycle from the resting-state methylidene species RuCl₂(NHC)(PCy₃)( Created by potrace 1.16, written by Peter Selinger 2001-2019 ]]> CH₂), GIIm. Both GII and the methylidene complexes are activated by dissociation of PCy₃. The impact of NHC donicity on the rate of PCy₃ loss is explored in a comparison of s-GIIm, vs.u-GIIm, in which the NHC ligand is saturated H₂IMes or unsaturated IMes, respectively. PCy₃ loss is nearly an order of magnitude slower for the IMes derivative (a difference that is replicated, albeit smaller, for the benzylidene precatalysts GII). Proposed as an overlooked contributor to these rate differences is an increase in the Ru–PCy₃ bond strength arising from π-back-donation onto the phosphine ligand. Strong σ-donation from the IMes ligand, coupled with the inability of this unsaturated NHC to participate in significant π-backbonding, amplifies Ru → PCy₃ π-back-donation. The resulting increase in Ru–P bond strength greatly inhibits entry into the active cycle. For s-GII, in contrast, the greater π-acceptor capacity of the NHC ligand enables competing Ru → H₂IMes back-donation (as confirmed by NOE experiments, which reveal restricted rotation about the Ru–NHC bond for H₂IMes, but not IMes). Ru → PCy₃ back-donation is thus attenuated in the H₂IMes complexes, accounting for the greater lability of the PCy₃ ligand in s-GIIm and s-GII. Similarly inhibited initiation is predicted for other metal–NHC catalysts in which a π-acceptor ligand L must be dissociated to permit substrate binding. Conversely, enhanced reactivity can be expected where such L ligands are pure σ-donors. These effects are expected to be particularly dramatic where the NHC ligand has minimal π-acceptor capacity (as in the unsaturated Arduengo carbenes), and in geometries that maximize NHC–M–L orbital interactions.

Acrylate metathesis via the second-generation Grubbs catalyst: unexpected pathways enabled by a PCy3-generated enolate

The diverse applications of acrylate metathesis range from synthesis of high-value α,β-unsaturated esters to depolymerization of unsaturated polymers. Examined here are unexpected side reactions promoted by the important Grubbs catalyst GII. Evidence is presented for attack of PCy3 on the acrylate olefin to generate a reactive carbanion, which participates in multiple pathways, including further Michael addition, proton abstraction, and catalyst deactivation. Related chemistry may be anticipated whenever labile metal-phosphine complexes are used to catalyze reactions of substrates bearing an electron-deficient olefin.

Isotopic probes for ruthenium-catalyzed olefin metathesis

¹³C-labelled Grubbs catalysts, RuCl₂(L)(PCy₃)(¹³CHR) (R = H, Ph), pinpoint the fate of the methylidene (benzylidene) moiety during metathesis and deactivation.