Alterations of mRNAs and Non-coding RNAs Associated with Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease is a neurodegenerative pathology whose pathognomonic hallmarks are increased generation of β-amyloid (Aβ) peptide, production of hyperphosphorylated (pTau), and neuroinflammation. The last is an alteration closely related to the progression of AD and although it is present in multiple neurodegenerative diseases, the pathophysiological events that characterize neuroinflammatory processes vary depending on the disease. In this article, we focus on mRNA and non-coding RNA alterations as part of the pathophysiological events characteristic of neuroinflammation in AD and the influence of these alterations on the course of the disease through interaction with multiple RNAs related to the generation of Aβ, pTau, and neuroinflammation itself.

Potential drugs for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease

It is well known that amyloid precursor protein (APP), the enzyme β-secretase 1 (BACE1), cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), nicastrin (NCT), and hyperphosphorylated tau protein (p-tau) are closely related to the development of Alzheimer's disease (AD). In addition, recent evidence shows that neuroinflammation also contributes to the pathogenesis of AD. Although the mechanism is not clearly known, such inflammation could alter the activity of the aforementioned molecules. Therefore, the use of anti-inflammatory agents could slow the progression of the disease. Nimesulide, resveratrol, and citalopram are three anti-inflammatory agents that could contribute to a decrease in neuroinflammation and consequently to a decrease in the overexpression of APP, BACE1, COX-2, NCT, and p-Tau, as they possess anti-inflammatory effects that could regulate the expression of APP, BACE1, COX-2, NCT, and p-Tau of potent pro-inflammatory markers indirectly involved in the expression of APP, BACE1, NCT, COX-2, and p-Tau; therefore, their use could be beneficial as preventive treatment as well as in the early stages of AD.

Neuroinflammation in Parkinson’s Disease: From Gene to Clinic: A Systematic Review

Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease whose progression and clinical characteristics have a close bidirectional and multilevel relationship with the process of neuroinflammation. In this context, it is necessary to understand the mechanisms involved in this neuroinflammation–PD link. This systematic search was, hereby, conducted with a focus on the four levels where alterations associated with neuroinflammation in PD have been described (genetic, cellular, histopathological and clinical-behavioral) by consulting the PubMed, Google Scholar, Scielo and Redalyc search engines, including clinical studies, review articles, book chapters and case studies. Initially, 585,772 articles were included, and, after applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 84 articles were obtained that contained information about the multilevel association of neuroinflammation with alterations in gene, molecular, cellular, tissue and neuroanatomical expression as well as clinical-behavioral manifestations in PD.

Atlas of Nervous System Vascular Malformations: A Systematic Review

Vascular malformations are frequent in the head and neck region, affecting the nervous system. The wide range of therapeutic approaches demand the correct anatomical, morphological, and functional characterization of these lesions supported by imaging. Using a systematic search protocol in PubMed, Google Scholar, Ebsco, Redalyc, and SciELO, the authors extracted clinical studies, review articles, book chapters, and case reports that provided information about vascular cerebral malformations, in accordance with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. A total of 385,614 articles were grouped; using the inclusion and exclusion criteria, three of the authors independently selected 51 articles about five vascular cerebral malformations: venous malformation, brain capillary telangiectasia, brain cavernous angiomas, arteriovenous malformation, and leptomeningeal angiomatosis as part of Sturge–Weber syndrome. We described the next topics—“definition”, “etiology”, “pathophysiology”, and “treatment”—with a focus on the relationship with the imaging approach. We concluded that the correct anatomical, morphological, and functional characterization of cerebral vascular malformations by means of various imaging studies is highly relevant in determining the therapeutic approach, and that new lines of therapeutic approaches continue to depend on the imaging evaluation of these lesions.

Effects of obesity in rats on prostate histology and expression of leptin receptor, prolactin receptor, IL-6, and NF-κB

BACKGROUND

Hypercaloric intake can lead to obesity, which is a major risk factor associated with chronic subclinical inflammation and many types of cancer. It can increase the serum levels of leptin, prolactin, nuclear factor kappa B (NF-кB) and interleukin (IL)-6, implicated in cell proliferation, differentiation and survival.

AIM

To explore the effects of obesity induced by chronic hypercaloric diet in rats on the long-term expression of leptin receptor (OB-R), prolactin receptor, NF-кB, and IL-6, and the changes of histology in rat prostate.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

From postnatal day 21, experimental males were fed with normal chow or chow plus enriched hypercaloric liquid diet. On the postnatal day 90 (13 week old), the animals were euthanized for prostate histology (hematoxylin and eosin staining) and hormone receptors analysis by Western blot.

RESULTS

Hypercaloric diet resulted in obesity (32% higher body weight). The prostates of the obese males showed epithelium anisocytosis and compressed interstice. There was also greater volume of lipidic content, anisokaryosis, alterations of the nucleus-cytoplasm ratio, and apparent proplasia. Measures in the ventral prostate (VP) showed that alveoli area increased, but epithelium height and nucleus area were reduced. In the dorsolateral prostate, there was only reduction of nucleus area and presence of mononuclear cells in the lumen. Hypercaloric males also expressed a trend for more OB-R 130 kD in the VP, but no changes were observed with regard to prolactin receptor, NF-кB and IL-6.

CONCLUSION

The obesity due to chronic consumption of hypercaloric diet affects both prostatic regions, but VP is possibly more sensitive via OB-R. We suggest that longer periods of obesity are needed to alter other receptors or the molecular markers of inflammation.

Amantadine in the prevention of clinical symptoms caused by SARS-CoV-2

BACKGROUND

Amantadine is a drug that can help in the prevention of SARS-CoV-2 symptomatology, as has been demonstrated in observational clinical studies.

METHODS

We searched in the PubMed database Clinical Studies of coronavirus-infected patients who have been treated with amantadine in a preventive manner as well as patients with Parkinson's disease.

RESULTS

Four clinical studies were found in which relatives of patients with COVID-19 had been prescribed the use of amantadine in a preventive manner to avoid the symptoms caused by the coronavirus.

CONCLUSION

Amantadine is a drug that can be prescribed as a prophylactic that prevents symptomatology caused by SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus.

Observational study of people infected with SARS-Cov-2, treated with amantadine

BACKGROUND

We conducted an observational study of 15 patients from a Southeastern area of Mexico with symptoms compatible with SARS-Cov-2, which were treated with the antiviral amantadine.

METHODOLOGY

In this study, data were collected from 15 individuals with clinical symptoms of COVID-19 infection, which were treated on an ambulatory basis with 100 mg of amantadine for a period of 14 days.

RESULTS

This drug demonstrated its effectiveness, as patients recovered successfully with this treatment without the necessity of attending a hospital to use mechanical ventilation. All patients developed IgG antibodies to SARS-Cov-2.

CONCLUSION

Amantadine can be used as a viable and cost-effective alternative for treating people with severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-Cov-2) on an ambulatory basis, while the vaccine is not available.

Razor scrape assay, an alternative variation to wound and healing assays

Cell migration is the process by which cells move through tissues, and it is crucial to carry out a wide variety of physiological and pathological processes. The study methods to evaluate cell migration are very useful tools for biomedical research. Among these methods, the wound and healing assay is one of the simplest, most economical and is widely used in research. However, one of its disadvantages is that the width and shape of the wound can vary among experimental samples since the scraping is carried out manually, representing a difficult variable to control. In the present article a variant of the razor scrape assay is addressed, which eliminates this variation in the width of the wound, thus facilitating the measurement and comparison using the total area of cell migration.•A method that can be carried out under standard culture conditions.•Avoids the disadvantage of variation in width and shape of the wound.•It constitutes a simple, cheap option and multiple advantages over the traditional method.

Amantadine Treatment for People with COVID-19

SARS-Cov-2, whose symptoms include difficulty swallowing, coughing, diarrhea, and breathing failure, has caused the loss of many lives around the world. In the absence of a vaccine or medication to help prevent or decrease the effects of the disease, we suggest that amantadine may reduce the effects of COVID-19.

MicroRNAs and autism spectrum disorder: small tools for a complex disorder

El trastorno del espectro autista (TEA) abarca un grupo complejo de trastornos del desarrollo neural que se caracterizan por presentar deficiencias en la interacción social, la comunicación y motricidad del individuo. El TEA tiene un impacto en la salud pública, por lo que sería de gran utilidad contar con biomarcadores que permitan la identificación temprana del trastorno. En este sentido, los microRNAs (miRNAs), que son reguladores de una gran variedad de funciones celulares y cuyas alteraciones en su expresión han sido observadas en individuos con TEA, se comienzan a considerar como blancos potenciales para el desarrollo de estrategias de diagnóstico y terapéuticas para estos trastornos. Esta revisión se enfoca en algunos estudios sobre la participación de miRNAs en el TEA, en modelos animales y humanos, y hace una aproximación a su posible uso como biomarcadores.

Prepuberal stress and obesity: effects on serum corticosterone, prolactin, testosterone and precancerous prostate lesions in adult rats

Stress during puberty and obesity can represent conditions that facilitate the long-term development of diseases, especially for stress-related disorders that depend on neuroendocrine and immune responses. The prostate is prone to diseases that result from neuroendocrine or immune challenges, such as cancer.

AIM

In the present study, we assessed the long-term effects of an acute pubertal stressor (immune-challenge) or obesity on the development of precancerous lesions in rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Pubertal male rats received a single injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or saline during puberty (5 weeks of age). In adulthood (8 weeks old), subgroups of males were fed with hypercaloric liquid diet to induce obesity. This resulted in a total of six subgroups: (1) intact-non obese, (2) intact-obese, (3) saline-non obese, (4) saline-obese, (5) LPS-non obese, and (6) LPS-obese. At 16 weeks of age the rats were sacrified for prostate histology (hematoxylin and eosin stain) and hormone analysis (testosterone, corticosterone and prolactin).

RESULTS

As compared to intact-non obese rats, males treated with LPS and those with obesity expressed histological alterations in both the dorsolateral and ventral portions of the prostate. Only prolactin was altered in LPS-treated males, whereas corticosterone was altered in LPS-obese rats.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that puberal exposure to an immune challenge or obesity facilitate the development of prostatic lesions in adult male rats. We discuss the role of hormones in the development of precancerous lesions.

Effect of copulation on potentially precancerous prostate lesions, serum testosterone and prolactin levels in rats

The prostate is an exocrine reproductive gland that participates in ejaculation and it is prone to diseases, including cancer.

AIM

In the pre-sent study, we assessed the long-term effects of copulation on the development of precancerous lesions in rats, and compared them with testosterone-induced prostatic lesions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

One group of Wistar males was given 10 copulatory sessions to one ejaculation with ovariectomized, hormone-primed females. Sessions occurred twice per week for a total of ten trials. A second group was exposed to females during the same trials, but physical contact was prevented. In addition, each group received a subcutaneous implant in the back either filled with testosterone propionate (T, 100 mg/kg) or empty. This resulted in four subgroups: 1) Control + No sex, 2) Control + Sex, 3) T + No sex and 4) T + Sex. Two days after the 10(th) trial all the males were sacrificed for prostate histo-logy (H&E) and hormone analysis (testosterone and prolactin).

RESULTS

Males from the group Control + No sex expressed normal histo-logy. However, those in the groups Control + Sex and T + No sex expressed metaplasia and dysplasia in both the dorsolateral and ventral portions of the prostate, respectively. Interestingly, males from the group T + Sex expressed dysplasia in the dorsolateral prostate only, but not in the ventral prostate.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that constant copulation may facilitate the development of prostatic lesions in males with normal levels of testosterone. However, copulation induces less lesions in the ventral prostate of males treated with testosterone.

Long-term administration of prolactin or testosterone induced similar precancerous prostate lesions in rats

Evidence indicates that prolactin plays a crucial role in the normal function and development of the prostate, but abnormal high levels of the hormone are associated with hyperplasia and cancer of the gland.

AIMS

The present study was designed to describe the progressive specific histological abnormalities in the prostate of rats with chronic hyperprolactinemia.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Prolactin was administered during 4; 12 or 24 weeks, and the resulting prostatic alterations were compared with control rats, and also with those treated with testosterone, or the combination of prolactin + testosterone.

RESULTS

Rats treated with prolactin, testosterone or prolactin + testosterone expressed precancerous histological abnormalities in the dorsolateral and ventral portions of the prostate as early as in 4 weeks of treatment, but in all cases the malignancy increased after 12 or 24 weeks of treatment.

CONCLUSION

Our study confirms that chronic hyperprolactinemia is a cause of prostate precancerous pathologies.

Activation of the cerebellum by olfactory stimulation in sexually naive male rats

INTRODUCTION

The cerebellum has been linked to multiple functions, such as motor control, cognition, memory, and emotional processing. As for its involvement in the sensory systems, the role of the cerebellum in the sense of smell remains unclear. We suggest that sexually naive male rats will present increased neuronal activity in the cerebellar vermis after being stimulated with almond odour or oestrous odour from receptive females.

METHODS

We compared activity in the cerebellar vermis using Fos immunoreactivity after olfactory stimulation. Stimulation took place during 60 min in a cube-shaped acrylic chamber with a double bottom. Stimuli were clean woodchip bedding, bedding with almond extract, and bedding taken from a cage of receptive females. Male rats were subsequently anaesthetised with intraperitoneal sodium pentobarbital. Cerebellar tissue was fixed with paraformaldehyde for later immunohistochemical analysis.

RESULTS

The number of Fos immunoreactive cells in all lobes of the cerebellar vermis was similar between groups stimulated with almond extract and with oestrous odour, and higher than in the clean woodchip group.

CONCLUSIONS

Stimulation of the main olfactory system (almond) and the accessory system (oestrous odour) increases Fos protein production in the granular layer of the cortex of the cerebellar vermis in naive male rats.

Rehabilitating a brain with Alzheimer's: a proposal

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder, originating sporadically in the population aged over 65 years, and advanced age is the principal risk factor leading to AD development. In spite of the large amount of research going on around the globe and all the information now available about AD, there is still no origin or triggering process known so far. Drugs approved for the treatment of AD include tacrine, donepezil, rivastigmine, galantamine, and memantine. These may delay or slow down the degenerative process for a while, but they can neither stop nor reverse its progression. Because that this might be due to a lack of effect of these drugs on degenerating neurons, even when they are able to potentiate the brain in nondegenerative conditions, we propose here an alternative therapy consisting of initial repair of neuronal membranes followed by conventional drug therapies. The rehabilitation of neurons in a degeneration process would enable the drugs to act more effectively on them and improve the effects of treatment in AD patients.

[Alzheimer's disease: immunity and diagnosis]

INTRODUCTION

Alzheimer's disease is a slowly progressing neurodegenerative disease that presents cognitive impairment, progressive loss of memory and conduct disorders. The main risk factor is advanced age. There is currently no cure for this disease and, consequently, important efforts have been made to describe readily accessible methods that allow it to be diagnosed earlier, as well as more effective treatments.

DEVELOPMENT

A great amount of research focused on the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of Alzheimer's disease is being carried out around the world. In this study we review the main aspects involved in the pathological process of the disease, with emphasis on the changes that generate an immune response and the possible diagnostic markers that have been proposed.

CONCLUSIONS

Today, a large body of information on Alzheimer's disease is available. Nevertheless, it is still important to continue with research that allows these patients to improve their quality of life by means of earlier and more accurate diagnoses, as well as more appropriate treatments.

Embryonic lethal abnormal vision-like RNA-binding proteins regulate neurite outgrowth and tau expression in PC12 cells

The embryonic lethal abnormal vision (ELAV)-like proteins are mRNA-binding proteins that regulate mRNA stability. The neuronal members of this family are required for neuronal differentiation. We identified the binding region of purified HuD protein to a target neuronal mRNA encoding for the tau microtubule-associated protein and demonstrated an in vivo interaction between the ELAV-like protein and its target tau mRNA. We show that treatment of neuronal cells with antisense oligodeoxynucleotides directed against HuD blocks the induction of neurite outgrowth and decreases the levels of tau mRNAs, indicating that the ELAV-like proteins are required for neuronal differentiation.