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Eidet JR, Jørstad ØK, Fostad IG, Olstad OK, Sørland RØ, Moe MC, Petrovski G, Pepaj M. Unilateral acute anterior uveitis is associated with ipsilateral changes in the tear fluid proteome that involves the LXR/RXR pathway. J Ophthalmic Inflamm Infect 2020; 10:13. [PMID: 32458144 PMCID: PMC7250997 DOI: 10.1186/s12348-020-00204-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To determine whether unilateral acute anterior uveitis (AAU) induces ipsilateral changes in the tear fluid proteome. METHODS Five patients (25-77 years old) with unilateral AAU were included. Tear fluid samples were obtained using Schirmer's test strips. The healthy eye served as control. Proteins were identified by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. RESULTS Two hundred forty-two tear fluid sample proteins were identified, of which 75 were present in at least three patients. Nine proteins were at least 1.5-fold increased, whereas eight were at least 1.5-fold decreased in tears from the diseased eye compared with the healthy eye. APOBEC3A was significantly increased (1.43-fold; P = 0.04), whereas TGM2 was significantly decreased (- 1.21-fold; P = 0.03) in tears from the diseased eye relative to the healthy eye. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis identified LXR/RXR (P < 1.02E-4) as a top canonical pathway. CONCLUSION Unilateral AAU induced detectable changes in the ipsilateral tear fluid proteome and involvement of the inflammation-associated LXR/RXR pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon Roger Eidet
- Center for Eye Research, Department of Ophthalmology, Oslo University Hospital, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Øystein Kalsnes Jørstad
- Center for Eye Research, Department of Ophthalmology, Oslo University Hospital, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ida G Fostad
- Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Biology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ole K Olstad
- Blood Cell Research Group, Section for Research, Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ragnhild Ø Sørland
- Center for Eye Research, Department of Ophthalmology, Oslo University Hospital, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Morten C Moe
- Center for Eye Research, Department of Ophthalmology, Oslo University Hospital, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Goran Petrovski
- Center for Eye Research, Department of Ophthalmology, Oslo University Hospital, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Milaim Pepaj
- Hormone Laboratory, Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
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Fostad IG, Eidet JR, Lagali NS, Dartt DA, Ræder S, Messelt EB, Utheim TP. Identification of Objective Morphometric Markers of Xerostomia in the Oral Mucosa Epithelium with In Vivo Confocal Microscopy. Microsc Microanal 2017; 23:88-96. [PMID: 28162126 DOI: 10.1017/s1431927617000022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this work was to determine whether the morphology of the oral mucosa epithelium (OME) of patients with xerostomia differ from patients without xerostomia. In total, 34 patients with dry eye disease (DED) with or without xerostomia were examined at The Norwegian Dry Eye Disease Clinic with in vivo confocal microscopy of the lower lip. In addition, age- and gender-matched healthy controls (HC) were included. DED patients with xerostomia had a higher superficial to deep backscatter ratio compared with DED patients without xerostomia (p=0.002) and HC (p=0.001). Regression analysis demonstrated that this ratio was related to xerostomia independently of gender and age (p<0.001). Sensitivity and specificity of detecting xerostomia were 0.78 and 0.85, respectively, when using a superficial to deep backscatter ratio cut-off value of 0.995 (p=0.004). The mean nucleus to cytosol backscatter ratio in the superficial OME was lower in patients with xerostomia than in those without xerostomia (p=0.034). In vivo confocal microscopy is a potential tool for evaluating the oral cavity and to assess changes in the OME associated with xerostomia, objectively and quantitatively. The cause of the increased backscatter in the superficial OME in xerostomia, however, remains to be elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ida G Fostad
- 1Department of Oral Biology, Faculty of Dentistry,University of Oslo,Sognsvannsveien 10,PO Box 1052,0316 Oslo,Norway
| | - Jon R Eidet
- 2The Norwegian Dry Eye Clinic,Lille Grensen 7,0159 Oslo,Norway
| | - Neil S Lagali
- 4Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine,Linköping University,SE-581 83 Linköping,Sweden
| | - Darlene A Dartt
- 5Schepens Eye Research Institute/Massachusetts Eye and Ear,Harvard Medical School,20 Staniford Street,Boston,MA 02114,USA
| | - Sten Ræder
- 2The Norwegian Dry Eye Clinic,Lille Grensen 7,0159 Oslo,Norway
| | - Edvard B Messelt
- 1Department of Oral Biology, Faculty of Dentistry,University of Oslo,Sognsvannsveien 10,PO Box 1052,0316 Oslo,Norway
| | - Tor P Utheim
- 1Department of Oral Biology, Faculty of Dentistry,University of Oslo,Sognsvannsveien 10,PO Box 1052,0316 Oslo,Norway
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Fostad IG, Eidet JR, Utheim TP, Ræder S, Lagali NS, Messelt EB, Dartt DA. Dry Eye Disease Patients with Xerostomia Report Higher Symptom Load and Have Poorer Meibum Expressibility. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0155214. [PMID: 27148875 PMCID: PMC4858238 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0155214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2015] [Accepted: 04/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to investigate if xerostomia (dry mouth) is associated with symptoms and signs of dry eye disease (DED). At the Norwegian Dry Eye Clinic, patients with symptomatic DED with different etiologies were consecutively included in the study. The patients underwent a comprehensive ophthalmological work-up and completed self-questionnaires on symptoms of ocular dryness (Ocular Surface Disease Index [OSDI] and McMonnies Dry Eye Questionnaire) and the Sjögren’s syndrome (SS) questionnaire (SSQ). Three hundred and eighteen patients (52% women and 48% men) with DED were included. Patient demographics were: 0 to 19 years (1%), 20 to 39 (25%), 40 to 59 (34%), 60 to 79 (35%) and 80 to 99 (5%). Xerostomia, defined as “daily symptoms of dry mouth the last three months” (as presented in SSQ) was reported by 23% of the patients. Female sex was more common among patients with xerostomia (81%) than among non-xerostomia patients (44%; P<0.001). Patients with xerostomia (60 ± 15 years) were older than those without xerostomia (51 ± 17; P<0.001). The use of prescription drugs was more prevalent among xerostomia patients (65%) than among non-xerostomia patients (35%; P<0.021; adjusted for age and sex). Patients with xerostomia had a higher OSDI score (19.0 ± 10.0) than those without xerostomia (12.9 ± 8.0; P<0.001). Moreover, xerostomia patients had more pathological meibum expressibility (0.9 ± 0.7) than those without xerostomia (0.7 ± 0.8; P = 0.046). Comparisons of OSDI and ocular signs were performed after controlling for the effects of sex, age and the number of systemic prescription drugs used. In conclusion, xerostomia patients demonstrated a higher DED symptom load and had poorer meibum expressibility than non-xerostomia patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ida G. Fostad
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- The Norwegian Dry Eye Clinic, Oslo, Norway
- * E-mail:
| | - Jon R. Eidet
- The Norwegian Dry Eye Clinic, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Ophthalmology, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Tor P. Utheim
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- The Norwegian Dry Eye Clinic, Oslo, Norway
- Unit of Regenerative Medicine, Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Ophthalmology, Vestre Viken Hospital Trust, Drammen, Norway
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Buskerud and Vestfold University College, Kongsberg, Norway
| | - Sten Ræder
- The Norwegian Dry Eye Clinic, Oslo, Norway
| | - Neil S. Lagali
- Department of Ophthalmology, Institute for Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | | | - Darlene A. Dartt
- Schepens Eye Research Institute, Massachusetts Eye and Ear/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States of America
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Utheim TP, Islam R, Fostad IG, Eidet JR, Sehic A, Olstad OK, Dartt DA, Messelt EB, Griffith M, Pasovic L. Storage Temperature Alters the Expression of Differentiation-Related Genes in Cultured Oral Keratinocytes. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0152526. [PMID: 27023475 PMCID: PMC4811429 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0152526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2015] [Accepted: 03/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Storage of cultured human oral keratinocytes (HOK) allows for transportation of cultured transplants to eye clinics worldwide. In a previous study, one-week storage of cultured HOK was found to be superior with regard to viability and morphology at 12°C compared to 4°C and 37°C. To understand more of how storage temperature affects cell phenotype, gene expression of HOK before and after storage at 4°C, 12°C, and 37°C was assessed. Materials and Methods Cultured HOK were stored in HEPES- and sodium bicarbonate-buffered Minimum Essential Medium at 4°C, 12°C, and 37°C for one week. Total RNA was isolated and the gene expression profile was determined using DNA microarrays and analyzed with Partek Genomics Suite software and Ingenuity Pathway Analysis. Differentially expressed genes (fold change > 1.5 and P < 0.05) were identified by one-way ANOVA. Key genes were validated using qPCR. Results Gene expression of cultures stored at 4°C and 12°C clustered close to the unstored control cultures. Cultures stored at 37°C displayed substantial change in gene expression compared to the other groups. In comparison with 12°C, 2,981 genes were differentially expressed at 37°C. In contrast, only 67 genes were differentially expressed between the unstored control and the cells stored at 12°C. The 12°C and 37°C culture groups differed most significantly with regard to the expression of differentiation markers. The Hedgehog signaling pathway was significantly downregulated at 37°C compared to 12°C. Conclusion HOK cultures stored at 37°C showed considerably larger changes in gene expression compared to unstored cells than cultured HOK stored at 4°C and 12°C. The changes observed at 37°C consisted of differentiation of the cells towards a squamous epithelium-specific phenotype. Storing cultured ocular surface transplants at 37°C is therefore not recommended. This is particularly interesting as 37°C is the standard incubation temperature used for cell culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tor Paaske Utheim
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Oral Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Ophthalmology, Vestre Viken HF Trust, Drammen, Norway
- Faculty of Health Sciences, National Centre for Optics, Vision and Eye Care, Buskerud and Vestfold University College, Kongsberg, Norway
| | - Rakibul Islam
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Oral Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ida G. Fostad
- Department of Oral Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jon R. Eidet
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Ophthalmology, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Amer Sehic
- Department of Oral Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ole K. Olstad
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Darlene A. Dartt
- Schepens Eye Research Institute, Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Edward B. Messelt
- Department of Oral Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - May Griffith
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Lara Pasovic
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- * E-mail:
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Eidet JR, Reppe S, Pasovic L, Olstad OK, Lyberg T, Khan AZ, Fostad IG, Chen DF, Utheim TP. The Silk-protein Sericin Induces Rapid Melanization of Cultured Primary Human Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells by Activating the NF-κB Pathway. Sci Rep 2016; 6:22671. [PMID: 26940175 PMCID: PMC4778122 DOI: 10.1038/srep22671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2015] [Accepted: 02/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Restoration of the retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells to prevent further loss of vision in patients with age-related macular degeneration represents a promising novel treatment modality. Development of RPE transplants, however, requires up to 3 months of cell differentiation. We explored whether the silk protein sericin can induce maturation of primary human retinal pigment epithelial (hRPE) cells. Microarray analysis demonstrated that sericin up-regulated RPE-associated transcripts (RPE65 and CRALBP). Upstream analysis identified the NF-κB pathway as one of the top sericin-induced regulators. ELISA confirmed that sericin stimulates the main NF-κB pathway. Increased levels of RPE-associated proteins (RPE65 and the pigment melanin) in the sericin-supplemented cultures were confirmed by western blot, spectrophotometry and transmission electron microscopy. Sericin also increased cell density and reduced cell death following serum starvation in culture. Inclusion of NF-κB agonists and antagonists in the culture medium showed that activation of the NF-κB pathway appears to be necessary, but not sufficient, for sericin-induced RPE pigmentation. We conclude that sericin promotes pigmentation of cultured primary hRPE cells by activating the main NF-κB pathway. Sericin’s potential role in culture protocols for rapid differentiation of hRPE cells derived from embryonic or induced pluripotent stem cells should be investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- J R Eidet
- Department of Ophthalmology, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - S Reppe
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - L Pasovic
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - O K Olstad
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - T Lyberg
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - A Z Khan
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - I G Fostad
- Department of Oral Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - D F Chen
- Schepens Eye Research Institute, Harvard Medical School/Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Boston, MA
| | - T P Utheim
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Oral Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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Fostad IG, Eidet JR, Shatos MA, Utheim TP, Utheim OA, Raeder S, Dartt DA. Biopsy harvesting site and distance from the explant affect conjunctival epithelial phenotype ex vivo. Exp Eye Res 2012; 104:15-25. [PMID: 23022405 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2012.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2012] [Revised: 08/28/2012] [Accepted: 09/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to investigate if the number of goblet cells expanded ex vivo from a conjunctival explant is affected by the biopsy harvesting site on the conjunctiva and the distance from the explant. Conjunctival explants from six regions: superior and inferior bulbus, fornix, and tarsus of male Sprague-Dawley rats were grown in RPMI 1640 with 10% fetal bovine serum on coverslips for eight days. Histochemical and immunofluorescent staining of goblet (CK-7/UEA-1/MUC5AC), stratified squamous, non-goblet (CK-4), proliferating (PCNA) and progenitor (ABCG2) cells were analyzed by epifluorescence and laser confocal microscopy. Outgrowth was measured with NIH ImageJ. For statistical analysis the Mann-Whitney test and Spearman's rank-order correlation test were used. Cultures from superior and inferior fornix contained the most goblet cells as indicated by the presence of CK-7+, UEA-1+ and MUC5AC+ cells. Superior and inferior forniceal cultures displayed 60.8% ± 9.2% and 64.7% ± 6.7% CK-7+ cells, respectively, compared to the superior tarsal (26.6% ± 8.4%; P < 0.05), superior bulbar (31.0% ± 4.0%; P < 0.05), inferior bulbar (38.5% ± 9.3%; P < 0.05) and inferior tarsal cultures (27.7% ± 8.3%; P < 0.05). While 28.4% ± 6.3% of CK-7+ goblet cells co-labeled with PCNA, only 7.4% ± 1.6% of UEA-1+ goblet cells did (P < 0.01). CK-7+ goblet cells were located at a lower concentration close to the explant (39.8% ± 3.1%) compared to near the leading edge (58.2% ± 4.5%; P < 0.05). Both markers for goblet cell secretory product (UEA-1 and MUC5AC), however, displayed the opposite pattern with a higher percentage of positive cells close to the explant than near the leading edge (P < 0.05). The percentage of CK-4+ cells was higher near the explant compared to near the leading edge (P < 0.01). The percentage of CK-7+ goblet cells in the cultures did not correlate with the outgrowth size (r(s) = -0.086; P = 0.435). The percentage of UEA-1+ goblet cells correlated negatively with outgrowth size (r(s) = -0.347; P < 0.01), whereas the percentage of CK-4+ cells correlated positively with the outgrowth size (r(s) = 0.473; P < 0.05). We conclude that forniceal explants yield the highest number of goblet cells ex vivo and thereby seem to be optimal for goblet cell transplantation. We also suggest that CK-7+/UEA-1- cells represent highly proliferative immature goblet cells. These cells could be important during conjunctival migration as they are mostly located close to the leading edge and their density does not decrease with increasing outgrowth size.
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Affiliation(s)
- I G Fostad
- Schepens Eye Research Institute, Massachusetts Eye and Ear, Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, 20 Staniford Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
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Eidet JR, Fostad IG, Shatos MA, Utheim TP, Utheim ØA, Raeder S, Dartt DA. Effect of biopsy location and size on proliferative capacity of ex vivo expanded conjunctival tissue. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2012; 53:2897-903. [PMID: 22491407 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.11-8269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate the effect of location and size of biopsy on phenotype and proliferative capacity of cultured rat conjunctival epithelial cells. METHODS Pieces of conjunctiva were used from six areas: superior and inferior areas of bulbus, fornix, and tarsus of male Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 6). Explants were grown in RPMI 1640 with 10% fetal bovine serum on coverslips for 8 days or assayed for colony-forming efficiency (n = 9). Analysis included immunofluorescence microscopy and outgrowth measurements with ImageJ software. The Mann-Whitney test and Spearman's rank-order correlation test were used. RESULTS Superior (23.9 ± 2.9-fold growth) and inferior (22.4 ± 1.2-fold growth) forniceal tissues yielded significantly more outgrowth with respect to explant size than superior bulbar (13.4 ± 1.9-fold growth; P < 0.05 and P < 0.01, respectively), inferior bulbar (13.6 ± 1.6-fold growth; P = 0.01 and P < 0.01, respectively), and inferior tarsal tissues (14.0 ± 1.3-fold growth; P = 0.01). Outgrowth size correlated positively with explant size (r(s) = 0.54; P < 0.001), whereas explant size correlated negatively with fold growth (r(s) = 0.36; P < 0.001). Superior forniceal cells displayed higher colony-forming efficiency (3.6% ± 0.9%) than superior bulbar (1.1% ± 0.3%; P < 0.05) and inferior bulbar cells (1.6% ± 0.8%; P < 0.05). Percentage of p63+ and PCNA+ cells correlated positively with explant and outgrowth size. CONCLUSIONS Small forniceal conjunctival explants grow the most effectively; however, for transplantation purposes, the loss of p63+ and PCNA+ cells with small explants must be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon R Eidet
- Schepens Eye Research Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
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Hofshagen M, Gjerset B, Er C, Tarpai A, Brun E, Dannevig B, Bruheim T, Fostad IG, Iversen B, Hungnes O, Lium B. Pandemic influenza A(H1N1)v: human to pig transmission in Norway? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 14. [PMID: 19941789 DOI: 10.2807/ese.14.45.19406-en] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In Norway there is an ongoing outbreak in pigs of infections with pandemic influenza A(H1N1)v virus. The first herd was confirmed positive on 10 October 2009. As of 26 October, a total of 23 herds have been diagnosed as positive. The majority of the herds seem to have been infected by humans. Sequence analysis of pig viruses from the index farm shows that they are identical or virtually identical to human viruses from the same geographical region.
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Varslot M, Resell J, Fostad IG. [Water-borne campylobacter infection--probably caused by pink-footed geese. Two outbreaks in Nord-Trøndelag, Stjørtdal in 1994 and Verdal in 1995]. Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen 1996; 116:3366-9. [PMID: 9011997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The authors describe two water-borne outbreaks of Campylobacter gastroenteritis that occurred in central Norway in 1994 and 1995. The epidemics were probably caused by contamination of drinking water by the stools of Pink-footed geese on the way from Svalbard to Germany-Netherlands. Campylobacter jejuni from the stools of the geese was transmitted to the population via untreated drinking water, causing disease in 50% of the population. About 1,000 persons suffered from gastroenteritis caused by contaminated drinking water in these two epidemics.
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