Experiences of racial microaggression among immigrant and Canadian-born young adults: Effects of double stigma on mental health and service use

BACKGROUND

Significant disparities in utilization of mental health services exist among immigrant and Canadian-born populations. These gaps may be associated with a 'double stigma' - stigma related to being from a racialized background exacerbated by mental health stigma. Immigrant young adults may be particularly susceptible to this phenomenon, given developmental and social transitions from adolescence to adulthood.

AIMS

To investigate the joint effects of racial microaggression and mental health stigma on mental health and service use among first-generation immigrant and Canadian-born university students.

METHOD

We conducted an online cross-sectional study among first-generation immigrant and Canadian-born university students (N = 1,280, Mage = 19.10, SD = 1.50).

RESULTS

Despite no differences in anxiety or depression symptoms, first-generation (foreign-born) immigrants were less likely to have received therapy and to have taken medication for mental health issues compared to Canadian-born participants. First-generation immigrants also reported experiencing higher levels of racial microaggression and stigma toward service use. Results suggest the presence of a double stigma, mental health stigma and racial microaggression, each explained significant additional variance in symptoms of anxiety and depression and medication use. No effects of double stigma for therapy use were found - while higher mental health stigma predicted lower use of therapy, racial microaggression did not predict unique variance in therapy use.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings highlight the joint effects of racial microaggression and stigma toward mental health and service as barriers to help-seeking among immigrant young adults. Mental health intervention and outreach programmes should target overt and covert forms of racial discrimination while incorporating culturally sensitive anti-stigma approaches to help reduce disparities in mental health service use among immigrants in Canada.

Bullying before and during the COVID-19 pandemic

The rates of bullying during the COVID-19 pandemic, a time of unprecedented public health and social restrictions, were compared to earlier times when students attended school in person. Several studies indicated a notable decrease in the prevalence of bullying victimization and perpetration during the pandemic, particularly when online learning was implemented. But studies from countries with fewer social restrictions indicated increases in rates of bullying during the pandemic. Mixed results regarding prevalence rates for some bullying forms (e.g., cyberbullying) were also found. Racialized youth and LGBTQ+ youth reliably reported higher rates of bullying victimization during the pandemic, consistent with pre-pandemic patterns. Reasons for the inconsistencies in findings likely relate to diverse methods, timeframes, and sampling techniques, as well as different experiences with pandemic social restrictions. More longitudinal studies are needed to assess whether bullying involvement did in fact "change" during, compared to before, the pandemic. The findings point to the importance of peer relationships and hint at the potential of increased teacher supervision as a bullying prevention strategy.

Bullying involvement and the transition to high school: A brief report

School transitions are common educational experiences for children and adolescents and many of them worry about being bullied during this type of major life-changing point. In a sample of 701 Canadians assessed yearly from grade 5 (age 10) to grade 12 (age 18), we examined heterogeneous patterns of bullying involvement while statistically accounting for the transition into high school. Gender differences were also examined. Results indicated that on average, bullying victimization declined over time with a significant drop noted between grade 8 and grade 9 (the transition into high school), with few differences between girls and boys. Bullying perpetration also declined for most students (no gender differences), with a notable drop found at the transition into high school. However, for a subset of adolescents, the transition into high school was accompanied by an increase in bullying perpetration. These varied experiences highlight the need to model heterogeneity when examining the impact of school transitions on bullying, a neglected focus of inquiry to date. Our results suggest that moving into high school is beneficial for most adolescents involved in bullying, but not for all.

Loneliness and Well-Being in Children and Adolescents during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review

Concerns have been raised about the loneliness and well-being of children and adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic. The extent to which the ongoing pandemic has impacted loneliness and the association between loneliness and well-being is unclear. Therefore, a systematic review of empirical studies on the COVID-19 pandemic was conducted to examine the (1) prevalence of loneliness in children and adolescents, (2) associations between loneliness and indicators of well-being, and (3) moderators of these associations. Five databases (MEDLINE, Embase, PsycInfo, Web of Science, ERIC) were searched from 1 January 2020 to 28 June 2022 and 41 studies met our inclusion criteria (cross-sectional: n = 30; longitudinal: n = 11; registered on PROSPERO: CRD42022337252). Cross-sectional prevalence rates of pandemic loneliness varied, with some finding that over half of children and adolescents experienced at least moderate levels of loneliness. Longitudinal results reflected significant mean increases in loneliness compared to pre-pandemic levels. Cross-sectional results indicated that higher levels of loneliness were significantly associated with poorer well-being, including higher depression symptoms, anxiety symptoms, gaming addiction, and sleep problems. Longitudinal associations between loneliness and well-being were more complex than cross-sectional associations, varying by assessment timing and factors in the statistical analyses. There was limited diversity in study designs and samples, preventing a thorough examination of moderating characteristics. Findings highlight a broader challenge with child and adolescent well-being that predates the pandemic and the need for future research to examine underrepresented populations across multiple timepoints.

Resilience in the Face of Adversity: Family Processes and the Immigrant Paradox in Youth Externalizing Problems

BACKGROUND

Despite increased exposure to social adversity, immigrant youth have fewer externalizing problems compared to non-immigrants. Explanations for this apparent advantage remain unclear. This study examined the extent to which socio-economic characteristics and family processes account for group differences in externalizing problems between immigrant and non-immigrant youth.

METHODS

Data come from a population-based cross-sectional study of 1,449 youth and their primary caregiver in Hamilton, Ontario. Computer-assisted structured interviews were administered separately to primary caregivers and youth, which included assessments of externalizing problems and measures of family obligation, parental monitoring, value of education and socio-economic characteristics.

RESULTS

First- and second-generation immigrant youth had lower levels of externalizing problems compared to non-immigrants. The magnitude of group differences was larger for parent (d = 0.37-0.55) versus youth reports of externalizing behaviours (d = 0.15-0.29). Family socio-economic and process characteristics partially accounted for group differences, which remained significant in the parent-reported model but rendered non-significant in the youth-reported model.

CONCLUSION

Results suggesting the potential protective effects of positive family processes for immigrant youth could be extended to non-immigrant youth to inform the development of parenting and family skills interventions. Promoting familial sources of resilience is a potential avenue for reversing downward trends in mental health seen across successive generations of immigrant youth, while also reducing risk of behavioural difficulties among non-immigrant youth.

Racial Discrimination, Cultural Processes, and Mental Health Among Individuals from Asian Backgrounds during COVID-19: A Narrative Review

Purpose: The goal of this paper is to examine racial/ethnic discrimination among young adults from Asian backgrounds, the extent to which these experiences affect their mental health, and whether cultural processes and coping strategies mitigate the impact of discrimination on mental health.   Background: Due to the Coronavirus (COVID-19) originating from Wuhan, China, there has been an increase in discrimination and xenophobia directed towards Asians worldwide, most prominently in Western countries. Fear of experiencing discrimination can harm mental health. Perceptions of discrimination and ways of coping with it may be influenced by cultural processes, such as acculturation and coping strategies. For young people, the consequences of negative bias towards one’s group, in addition to facing COVID-19-related stressors, could be harmful to mental health.   Objectives: Racial/ethnic discrimination experienced among Asians living in Canada within the COVID-19 context and potential cultural processes (acculturation orientation, coping strategies) that might reduce the impact of discrimination on mental health.   Methods: Articles on the impact of COVID-19 on mental health and racial/ethnic discrimination concerning the pandemic within the North American context were reviewed to examine the extent to which ethnocultural factors were addressed in the recent literature. Within the COVID-19 context, the discrimination experiences and well-being of young adults aged 17-25 years old were examined. To investigate whether cultural processes are associated with perceptions of racial/ethnic discrimination, related topics such as coping strategies, acculturation orientation, and physical health, earlier articles were sought out, with a primary focus on Canada and the US.  Keywords searched on Google Scholar, PsychINFO, and PubMed databases included Asian and Chinese racial/ethnic discrimination, COVID-19, Canada, coping with stressors, and Asian acculturation. Research on COVID-19 was examined from 2019 onward, while acculturation, coping, and discrimination articles from 1999 to 2021 were considered.   Discussion: Since the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a decline in mental health worldwide. Select groups, notably those from low SES backgrounds, youth, and people from Asian backgrounds have been affected more strongly than the general population. Low SES groups have faced poorer health outcomes due to limited resources. Individuals from Asian backgrounds have been targets of xenophobic attacks, being blamed for the Coronavirus and accused of spreading it in the Western context. During this time, young adults have also experienced a massive shift in their daily routine of school and socializing, increasing their isolation and thereby affecting their mental health. To cope with the stressors, a variety of strategies have been used, such as social support and exercise. These strategies may play a particularly adaptive role in the mental health of people at risk of experiencing ethnic discrimination   Conclusion: The COVID-19 pandemic has had a negative impact on young adults’ mental health due to social isolation and changes in daily routines. Most research on Asians in North America has been from the US with limited findings from Canadian samples. Findings regarding the specific mental health impacts that COVID-19 has had on individuals from Asian backgrounds, the stigma and ethnic discrimination they are facing, their coping mechanisms, and their mental health in Canada are currently limited. This dual threat for Asian young adults makes them particularly vulnerable in the context of the current pandemic.   Keywords: COVID-19, Asian young adults, xenophobia, racial discrimination, acculturation, coping

In-Person Versus Online Learning in Relation to Students’ Perceptions of Mattering During COVID-19: A Brief Report

We examined students’ perceptions of mattering during the pandemic in relation to in-person versus online learning in a sample of 6578 Canadian students in Grades 4–12. We found that elementary school students who attended school in-person reported mattering the most, followed by secondary school students who learned part-time in-person and the rest of the time online (blended learning group). The students who felt that they mattered the least were those who learned online full-time during the pandemic (elementary and secondary students). These results were not driven by a selection effect for school choice during the pandemic—our experimental design showed that students’ perceptions of mattering did not differ by current learning modality when they were asked to reflect on their experiences before the pandemic even though some were also learning online full-time at the time they responded to our questions. No gender differences were found. As a validity check, we examined if mattering was correlated with school climate, as it has in past research. Results were similar in that a modest association between mattering and positive school climate was found in both experimental conditions. The results of this brief study show that in-person learning seems to help convey to students that they matter. This is important to know because students who feel like they matter are more protected, resilient, and engaged. Accordingly, mattering is a key educational indicator that ought to be considered when contemplating the merits of remote learning.

Research Review: Test-retest reliability of standardized diagnostic interviews to assess child and adolescent psychiatric disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

A better understanding of factors contributing to the observed variability in estimates of test-retest reliability in published studies on standardized diagnostic interviews (SDI) is needed. The objectives of this systematic review and meta-analysis were to estimate the pooled test-retest reliability for parent and youth assessments of seven common disorders, and to examine sources of between-study heterogeneity in reliability.

METHODS

Following a systematic review of the literature, multilevel random effects meta-analyses were used to analyse 202 reliability estimates (Cohen's kappa = ҡ) from 31 eligible studies and 5,369 assessments of 3,344 children and youth.

RESULTS

Pooled reliability was moderate at ҡ = .58 (CI 95% 0.53-0.63) and between-study heterogeneity was substantial (Q = 2,063 (df = 201), p < .001 and I²  = 79%). In subgroup analysis, reliability varied across informants for specific types of psychiatric disorder (ҡ = .53-.69 for parent vs. ҡ = .39-.68 for youth) with estimates significantly higher for parents on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder and the broad groupings of externalizing and any disorder. Reliability was also significantly higher in studies with indicators of poor or fair study methodology quality (sample size <50, retest interval <7 days).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings raise important questions about the meaningfulness of published evidence on the test-retest reliability of SDIs and the usefulness of these tools in both clinical and research contexts. Potential remedies include the introduction of standardized study and reporting requirements for reliability studies, and exploration of other approaches to assessing and classifying child and adolescent psychiatric disorder.

Ethnic Group Differences in Bullying Perpetration: A Meta-Analysis

We examined ethnic differences in bullying perpetration in order to assess whether ethnic group membership was associated with higher involvement among (1) nonimmigrant and immigrant youth; and (2) White and visible minority youth (i.e., Black, Hispanic, Asian, Indigenous, and Biracial). Fifty-three studies (N = 740,176; 6-18-year-olds) were included in the meta-analysis. Results yielded very small and nonsignificant effect size differences across all group comparisons. Methodological moderator analyses indicated several differences across groups. Our findings provide initial support that the assessment of ethnicity as a descriptive variable is not sufficient to account for group differences in bullying perpetration.

Cancer-related cognitive impairment in breast cancer survivors: An examination of conceptual and statistical cognitive domains using principal component analysis

There is a great deal of variability in the composition of neuropsychological test batteries used in the assessment of cancerrelated cognitive impairment (CRCI). Not only the development of a gold standard approach for CRCI assessment would allow for easier identification of women suffering from CRCI but it would also promote optimal care for survivors. As a first step towards the development of a valid and reliable unified test battery, the objective of this study was to verify whether the theoretical domains commonly used in CRCI assessment are statistically supported, before and after breast cancer treatment. Principal component analyses (PCA) were performed on the results from 23 neuropsychological tests grouped into eight conceptual domains. For baseline data, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin was .82 and Bartlett's X2(253, N=95) = 949.48, P<0.001. A five-component solution explained 60.94% of the common variance. For the post-treatment data, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin was .83 and Bartlett's X2(253, N=95) = 1007.21, P<0.001 and a five component solution explained 62.03% of the common variance. Although a visual comparison of the theoretical model with those determined via PCA indicated important overlap between conceptual domains and statistical components, significant dissimilarities were also observed.

Bullying among immigrant and non-immigrant early adolescents: School- and student-level effects

We examined the association between school immigrant concentration and bullying among immigrant and non-immigrant early adolescents, and identified potential explanatory factors. First generation immigrant students had reduced odds of victimization and perpetration in schools with high (20-60%), compared to low, levels of immigrant concentration. Second generation immigrant students had reduced odds of ethnic/racial victimization in moderately concentrated schools; while non-immigrants had increased odds in the same schools. Non-white students had increased odds of ethnic/racial victimization compared to White students. While students' sense of school belonging and perceived teacher cultural sensitivity were negatively associated with bullying, they did not account for the differential associations noted above. Results demonstrate the importance of immigrant density as a protective school characteristic for immigrant and ethnic minority youth. Additional social processes operating in schools that may explain bullying behaviors among immigrant and non-immigrant youth should be explored to inform programs for promoting inclusion in schools.

School ethnic composition and bullying in Canadian schools

Bullying in ethnically diverse schools varies as a function of the ethnic composition and degree of diversity in schools. Although Canada is highly multicultural, few researchers have focused on the role of context on ethnic majority and minority youths’ bullying involvement. In the present study, 11,649 European-Canadian/ethnic majority (77%) and non-European Canadian/ethnic minority (23%) students in Grade 4 to Grade 12 completed an online Safe Schools Survey on general, physical, verbal, social, and cyber bullying. Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) analyses indicated significant interactions between the proportion of non-European Canadian children in a school (Level 2) and individual ethnicity (Level 1) across most types of bullying victimization. Non-European Canadian students experienced less peer victimization in schools with higher proportions of non-European Canadian students, but ethnic composition was not related to European Canadian students’ peer victimization. No differences in bullying perpetration were found as a function of school ethnic composition across groups. Our findings suggest that ethnic composition in Canadian schools may not be strongly associated with bullying perpetration and that a higher representation of other ethnic minority peers may act as a buffer against peer victimization.

Meta-analytic results of ethnic group differences in peer victimization

Research on the prevalence of peer victimization across ethnicities indicates that no one group is consistently at higher risk. In the present two meta-analyses representing 692,548 children and adolescents (age 6-18 years), we examined ethnic group differences in peer victimization at school by including studies with (a) ethnic majority-minority group comparisons (k = 24), and (b) White and Black, Hispanic, Asian, and Aboriginal comparisons (k = 81). Methodological moderating effects (measure type, definition of bullying, publication type and year, age, and country) were examined in both analyses. Using Cohen's d, results indicated a null effect size for the ethnic majority-minority group comparison. Moderator analyses indicated that ethnic majority youth experienced more peer victimization than ethnic minorities in the US (d = .23). The analysis on multiple group comparisons between White and Black (d = .02), Hispanic (d = .08), Asian (d = .05), Aboriginal (d = -.02) and Biracial (d = -.05) groups indicated small effect sizes. Overall, results from the main and moderator analyses yielded small effects of ethnicity, suggesting that ethnicity assessed as a demographic variable is not an adequate indicator for addressing ethnic group differences in peer victimization. Although few notable differences were found between White and non-White groups regarding rates of peer victimization, certain societal and methodological limitations in the assessment of peer victimization may underestimate differences between ethnicities. Aggr. Behav. Aggr. Behav. 42:149-170, 2015. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Perceived Parental and Peer Support in Relation to Canadian, Cuban, and Spanish Adolescents’ Valuing of Academics and Intrinsic Academic Motivation

The aim of this study was to explore possible parent and peer influences on adolescents’ valuing of academics and intrinsic academic motivation in cultures varying in traditional emphasis on the family unit (Cuba, Canada, and Spain). Perceived parent and peer support, parents’ expectations, and valuing of academics significantly predicted adolescents’ valuing of education and motivation. Spanish adolescents were less motivated than members of the other ethnic groups. The Spanish participants also reported lower perceived parental expectations than Chinese Canadians and less perceived peer support than did Cubans and Chinese Canadians. Perceived social support from same- and opposite-sex friends predicted adolescents’ valuing of academics and intrinsic motivation most strongly in the Canadian sample. Cuban parents’ perceived valuing of academics predicted adolescents’ intrinsic academic motivation more strongly than in the other cultures sampled.