Acrylamide Content in Breast Milk: The Evaluation of the Impact of Breastfeeding Women's Diet and the Estimation of the Exposure of Breastfed Infants to Acrylamide in Breast Milk

Acrylamide in food is formed by the Maillard reaction. Numerous studies have shown that acrylamide is a neurotoxic and carcinogenic compound. The aim of this study was to determine the level of acrylamide in breast milk at different lactation stages and to evaluate the impact of breastfeeding women's diet on the content of this compound in breast milk. The acrylamide level in breast milk samples was determined by LC-MS/MS. Breastfeeding women's diet was evaluated based on the 24 h dietary recall. The median acrylamide level in colostrum (n = 47) was significantly (p < 0.0005) lower than in the mature milk (n = 26)-0.05 µg/L and 0.14 µg/L, respectively. The estimated breastfeeding women's acrylamide intake from the hospital diet was significantly (p < 0.0001) lower than that from the home diet. We found positive-although modest and borderline significant-correlation between acrylamide intake by breastfeeding women from the hospital diet µg/day) and acrylamide level in the colostrum (µg/L). Acrylamide has been detected in human milk samples, and a positive correlation between dietary acrylamide intake by breastfeeding women and its content in breast milk was observed, which suggests that the concentration can be reduced. Breastfeeding women should avoid foods that may be a source of acrylamide in their diet.

Are AAMA and GAMA Levels in Urine after Childbirth a Suitable Marker to Assess Exposure to Acrylamide from Passive Smoking during Pregnancy?-A Pilot Study

Introduction: Acrylamide (AA) is a “probably carcinogenic to humans” monomer that can form in heated starchy food and in tobacco smoke. N-Acetyl-S-(2-carbamoylethyl)-L-cysteine (AAMA) and N-Acetyl-S-(2-carbamoyl-2-hydroxyethyl)-L-cysteine (GAMA), acrylamide metabolites in urine, are recognized as good markers of exposure to acrylamide. Aim: The aim of the study is a preliminary assessment whether the levels of AAMA and GAMA in urine after childbirth are good markers of acrylamide exposure due to passive smoking during pregnancy. Material and method: The study group consisted 67 non-smokers and 10 passive-smoker women during pregnancy. AAMA and GAMA levels in urine samples were determined using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Results: The median AAMA levels in urine of non-smoking and passively smoking women were 30.7 μg/g creatinine and 25.2 μg/g creatinine, respectively. Much lower values were determined for GAMA: 11.4 μg/g creatinine and 10.3 μg/g creatinine, respectively. There is no significant difference between AAMA and GAMA content in urine samples between both groups of women as well as in the anthropometric parameters of newborns between those two groups of mothers. Conclusion: Our pilot study did not confirm that postpartum AAMA and GAMA concentrations in urine are good markers of exposure to acrylamide from passive smoking during pregnancy. It is probably due to the different ways of acrylamide absorption from tobacco smoke by active and passive smokers. Exposure of pregnant women to acrylamide from passive smoking requires further research.

The effect of vegetable and spice addition on the acrylamide content and antioxidant activity of innovative cereal products

The aim of the work was to assess the impact of vegetable and spice addition on the acrylamide content and antioxidant activity of extruded cereal crisps. The foods were based on grain ingredients, such as brown rice, whole grain flour, wheat bran, with different vegetables. Products from one group contained green vegetables, such as broccoli and zucchini; garlic was included as a flavour additive (0.75-1.50%). The second group of crisps consisted of similar cereal ingredients with pumpkin and cinnamon; additionally ginger was included as a flavour additive (0.75-1.50%). The results indicate that the production of a new, innovative product with appropriate nutritional value and acceptable quality is a complex process. The production process significantly changed the nutritional value of the product. The content of acrylamide in zucchini and broccoli crisps was relatively low; ranging from 78 to 86 μg/kg of product. The addition of garlic did not significantly affect the acrylamide content in the final product. For cereal-pumpkin crisps, the acrylamide content was 7 times higher in comparison with zucchini and broccoli products. The acrylamide content in pumpkin and ginger crisps exceeded the benchmark level. The antioxidant activity of the pumpkin product was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than for crisps with green vegetables.

Impact of conjugated linoleic acid administered to rats prior and after carcinogenic agent on arachidonic and linoleic acid metabolites in serum and tumors

The objective of the study was to assess the influence of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) daily supplementation prior and after carcinogenic agent on the concentrations of eicosanoids - metabolites of arachidonic acid (15-, 12- or 5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (15-, 12-, 5-HETE), prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂)) and linoleic acid (13- or 9-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acids (13-, 9-HODE)) in rat serum and 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA)-induced tumors. Female rats were randomised into six groups, receiving 1% or 2% Bio-C.L.A or plant oil since the 37th day of life throughout the whole experiment. Some rats (50-day-old) were administered DMBA to induce tumors. Eicosanoids were analyzed with LC-MS/MS. The study indicated that CLA supplemented daily to rats prior and after carcinogen administration affected concentrations of arachidonic and linoleic acid metabolites in rat serum and induced tumors. However, ratios of eicosanoids exerting opposite activities (e.g. 12-HETE/15-HETE) appear to act as more precise factors reflecting pathological changes in an organism than individual compounds.

Acrylamide content in cigarette mainstream smoke and estimation of exposure to acrylamide from tobacco smoke in Poland

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE

Acrylamide is a "probably human carcinogen" monomer that can form in heated starchy food as a result of a reaction between asparagine and reducing sugars via Maillard reaction. The main source of acrylamide in human diet are potato products, cereal products and coffee. Tobacco smoke may be another significant source of exposure to acrylamide. The aim of our study was to determine acrylamide content in cigarettes available on the Polish market and to estimate the exposure to acrylamide originating from tobacco smoke in smokers in Poland.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The material was cigarettes of the top five brands bought in Poland and tobacco from non-smoked cigarettes. Acrylamide content in cigarettes mainstream smoke was determined by LC-MS/MS. Exposure assessment was carried out using analytical data of acrylamide content in cigarettes and the mean quantity of cigarettes smoked daily by smokers in Poland, assuming body weight at 70 kg.

RESULTS

The mean content of acrylamide was 679.3 ng/cigarette (range: 455.0 - 822.5 ng/cigarette). The content of acrylamide was evidenced to correlate positively with total particulate matter (TPM) content in cigarettes. The estimated average exposure to acrylamide from tobacco smoke in adult smokers in Poland is 0.17 μg/kg b.w./day.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate that tobacco smoke is a significant source of acrylamide and total exposure to acrylamide in the population of smokers, on average, is higher by more than 50% in comparison with non-smokers. Our estimation of exposure to acrylamide from tobacco smoke is the first estimation taking into account the actual determined acrylamide content in the cigarettes available on the market.

Estimation of exposure to dietary acrylamide based on mercapturic acids level in urine of Polish women post partum and an assessment of health risk

We determined metabolites of acrylamide and glycidamide concentrations (AAMA and GAMA, respectively) in urine of 93 women within the first days after delivery, using LC-MS/MS. The median AAMA and GAMA levels in urine were 20.9 μg/l (2.3÷399.0 μg/l) and 8.6 μg/l (1.3÷85.0 μg/l), respectively. In smokers we found significantly (P<0.01) higher levels of metabolites in comparison with the non-smoking women. As demonstrated by the 24-h dietary recall, acrylamide intake was low (median: 7.04 μg/day). Estimated exposure to acrylamide based on AAMA and GAMA levels in the whole group of women was 0.16 μg/kg b.w./day (1.15 μg/kg b.w./day, P95). We found significantly (P<0.05) higher exposure in women who consumed higher amount of acrylamide in the diet (≥10 μg/day vs <10 μg/day). A weak but significant positive correlation between acrylamide intake calculated on the basis of urinary levels of AAMA and GAMA and estimated on the basis of 24-h dietary recall (r=0.26, P<0.05) was found. The estimated margin of exposure values were below 10 000 and ranged from 156 for 95th percentile to 1938 for median acrylamide intake. Our results have shown that even a low dietary acrylamide intake may be associated with health risk.

Studies of acrylamide level in coffee and coffee substitutes: influence of raw material and manufacturing conditions

BACKGROUND

Many animal studies have shown that acrylamide is both neurotoxic and carcinogenic. The first reports of acrylamide actually having been found in foodstuffs were published in 2002 by the Swedish National Food Agency in conjunction with scientists from the University of Stockholm. It has since been demonstrated that acrylamide arises in foodstuffs by the Maillard reaction, ie. between free asparagine and reducing sugars at temperatures >120 degrees C. Coffee in fact, forms one of the principal dietary sources of acrylamide, where it is normally drunk in large quantities throughout many countries worldwide that includes Poland. Thus, it constitutes a major dietary component in a wide range of population groups, mainly ranging from late adolescents to the elderly.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the acrylamide level in commercial samples of roasted and instant coffee and in coffee substitutes by LC-MS/MS method. The influence of coffee species and colour intensity of coffee on acrylamide level was also detailed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 42 samples of coffee were analysed which included 28 that were ground roasted coffee, 11 instant coffees and 3 coffee substitutes (grain coffee). Analytical separation of acrylamide from coffee was performed by liquid chromatography followed by tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). To evaluate the colour intensity of ground roasted coffee and instant coffee we used method of arranging (sequence).

RESULTS

The highest mean acrylamide concentrations were found in coffee substitutes (818 pg/kg) followed by instant coffee (358 microg/kg) and then roasted coffee (179 microg/kg). One single cup of coffee (160 ml) delivered on average from 0.45 microg acrylamide in roasted coffee to 3.21 microg in coffee substitutes. There were no significant differences in acrylamide level between the coffee species ie. Arabica vs Robusta or a mixture thereof. The various methods of coffee manufacture also showed no differences in acrylamide (ie. freeze-dried coffee vs agglomerated coffee). A significant negative correlation was observed between acrylamide levels and the intensity of colour in roasted coffee; this was not the case however for instant coffee.

CONCLUSIONS

It was demonstrated that roasting process had the most significant effect on acrylamide levels in natural coffee, however there were no relationships found with coffee species. Due to the high acrylamide levels demonstrated in coffee substitutes, recommended amounts should be defined and manufacturers should be obliged to reduce such levels in these products.

Optimisation and validation of the analytical procedure for the determination of acrylamide in coffee by LC-MS/MS with SPE clean up

BACKGROUND

Numerous studies have demonstrated acrylamide to be both neurotoxic and carcinogenic. At present it is widely recognised that acrylamide is mainly formed through the Maillard reaction from free asparagine and reducing sugars. The major sources of dietary acrylamide are potato products, processed cereals and coffee.

OBJECTIVE

To optimise and validate an analytical method for determining acrylamide in coffee by liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry analysis (LC/MS/MS) using SPE clean-up.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Analytical separation of acrylamide from roasted coffee was performed by liquid chromatography using a Hypercarb column followed by LC/MS/MS analysis, with 2,3,3-d3 acrylamide as an internal standard. The method was based on two purification steps: the first with hexane and Carrez solutions in order to remove of fat and to precipitate proteins, respectively; and the second with a solid-phase extraction (SPE) column which proved to be efficient in the elimination of the main chromatographic interferences.

RESULTS

Limit of quantification (LOQ) for measuring acrylamide in coffee was 50 microg/kg. The described method demonstrates satisfactory precision (RSD = 2.5%), repeatability (RSD = 9.2%) and accuracy (mean recovery - 97.4%).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results confirm that LC-MS/MS with SPE clean-up is selective and suitable for determination of acrylamide in coffee. Indeed, this method meets the criteria of EU Commission Recommendations (No. 2007/331/EC and No. 2010/307/EU), on the monitoring of acrylamide levels in food.

[Determination of acrylamide content in potato products using GC-MS/MS and LC-MS/MS methods]

The aim of our study was to check a useful of GCQ-MS/MS and LC-MS/MS methods to determination of acrylamide in foodstuffs and determined acrylamide content in potato products randomly collected in Poland in 2007-2008. As a result of validation of these methods we found the both using methods were characterized by low quantification limit and well precision. The highest acrylamide level was in potato crisps--770 microg/kg (113 divided by 1890 microg/kg), but the lowest--was in French fries collected from bars and restaurants--401 microg/kg (134 divided by 679 microg/kg). Acrylamide content analyzed in 2008 in potato crisp and French fries ready to eat was higher than in 2007. The difference was not statistically significant. In French fries fried in laboratory from pre-cooked French fries in 2008 acrylamide level was lower that in these products analyzed in 2007.

[The estimation of the influence of various methods of thermal processing on acrylamide level in potato chips]

The aim of our study was to examine influence of thermal processing conditions on acrylamide concentration in potato chips ready to eat which were preparing from different varieties of pre-cooked potato chips. Relation between colour of potato chips and acrylamide content was also examined. Acrylamide concentration in potato chips ready to eat ranged from 292 to 1534 microg/kg. We found the lowest acrylamide content in potato chips preparing in microwave oven and the highest in the same potato chips fried in deep fryer. We didn't find significant correlation between the acrylamide level in potato chips ready to eat and the colour intensity of products and temperature of thermal processing.

[Study of the influence of raw material and processing conditions on acrylamide level in fried potato chips]

The aim of our study was to examine relation between the asparagine level in raw material and acrylamide concentration in chips made from different varieties of potato. Relation between colour of potato chips and acrylamide content was also examined. Acrylamide concentration in fried potato chips ranged from 376 to 2348 microg/kg. We found the lowest acrylamide content in potato chips made from the Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute Irga and the highest in Irga bought in the Warsaw market. We didn't find significant correlation between the asparagine content in raw material and the acrylamide level in potato chips (r = -0.13). The colour intensity of fried chips positively correlated with acrylamide concentration independently from the potato varieties and sequence of frying (r = 0.8045; p < 0.005).

Preliminary assessment of exposure of children and adolescents to acrylamide originating from food

The objective of the tests was to make preliminary assessment of acrylamide intake from the diet in the category of children and adolescents falling into 7-18 age bracket. For the purposes of assessment the our analytical test results were used of acrylamide content in potato crisps and French fries in samples taken randomly from all over Poland, whereas the intake level was estimated on the basis of a 24-hour recalls leading by National Food and Nutrition Institute in 2000. In the population of consumers eating potato crisps and French fries the average intake of acrylamide in the population of children aged 7-13 amounted to 63.4 microg/person/day, meanwhile in adolescents population aged 14-18-- 69.5 microg/person/day. The conversion of rest results into kg of body mass showed that acrylamide intake in the children population aged 7-13 lat was 1.78 microg per kg of body mass, whereas the acrylamide intake in adolescents population aged 14-18 was 1.17 microg/kg of body mass. Due to disadvantageous health effect of acrylamide it is necessary to reduce the content of this compound in diet.

Acrylamide content in heat-treated carbohydrate-rich foods in Poland

The objective of the study was to determine the content of acrylamide in randomly selected samples of potato crisps and French fries using GC/MS/MS. The mean content of acrylamide in tested crisps amounted to 998 microg/kg (range from 352 to 3647 microg/kg) and was almost three times higher than in French fries--337 microg/kg (range from 88 to 799 microg/kg). Differences (even ten times) in the level of acrylamid in individual product samples, testifying the impact of raw materials and technological process running conditions on the content of acrylamide in the final product. The results of our study were close to those obtained in other countries.

[Acrylamide content in potato crisps in Poland]

The main source of acrylamide in the diet are thermally processed carbohydrate-rich products, mainly those obtained from potatoes. Acrylamide is a substance with neurotoxic, genotoxic and carcinogenic properties. The International Agency for Research on Cancer classified it as a potential human carcinogen in 1994. The purpose of this study was to assess acrylamide content in 24 samples of crisps randomly collected in Poland in 2004. Acrylamide was determined in the form of brominated derivatives by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. The average acrylamide content in the crisp samples examined was 998 mg/kg of the product, ranging from 352 to 3647 microg/kg, depending on the type of the crisps. The factor determining the differences in acrylamide content in the product was also the manufacturer. The average content of acrylamide in the crisps produced by three different manufacturers (manufacturers 1-3) was ca. 600-900 microg/kg, and in the crisps produced by manufacturer 4 was ca. 3 times higher. Moreover, substantial differences were found between the same types of crisps produced by the same manufacturers but originating from different manufacturing batches. The results obtained suggest the effects of various technological processes and raw material types on the level of acrylamide in crisps.