Square beams for optimal tiling in transmission electron microscopy

Imaging large fields of view at a high magnification requires tiling. Transmission electron microscopes typically have round beam profiles; therefore, tiling across a large area is either imperfect or results in uneven exposures, a problem for dose-sensitive samples. Here, we introduce a square electron beam that can easily be retrofitted in existing microscopes, and demonstrate its application, showing that it can tile nearly perfectly and deliver cryo-electron microscopy imaging with a resolution comparable to conventional set-ups.

CryoCycle your grids: Plunge vitrifying and reusing clipped grids to advance cryoEM democratization

CryoEM democratization is hampered by access to costly plunge-freezing supplies. We introduce methods, called CryoCycle, for reliably blotting, vitrifying, and reusing clipped cryoEM grids. We demonstrate that vitreous ice may be produced by plunging clipped grids with purified proteins into liquid ethane and that clipped grids may be reused several times for different protein samples. Furthermore, we demonstrate the vitrification of thin areas of cells prepared on gold-coated, pre-clipped grids.

Recent advances in infectious disease research using cryo-electron tomography

With the increasing spread of infectious diseases worldwide, there is an urgent need for novel strategies to combat them. Cryogenic sample electron microscopy (cryo-EM) techniques, particularly electron tomography (cryo-ET), have revolutionized the field of infectious disease research by enabling multiscale observation of biological structures in a near-native state. This review highlights the recent advances in infectious disease research using cryo-ET and discusses the potential of this structural biology technique to help discover mechanisms of infection in native environments and guiding in the right direction for future drug discovery.

In situ cryo-FIB/SEM Specimen Preparation Using the Waffle Method

Cryo-focused ion beam (FIB) milling of vitrified specimens is emerging as a powerful method for in situ specimen preparation. It allows for the preservation of native and near-native conditions in cells, and can reveal the molecular structure of protein complexes when combined with cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET) and sub-tomogram averaging. Cryo-FIB milling is often performed on plunge-frozen specimens of limited thickness. However, this approach may have several disadvantages, including low throughput for cells that are small, or at low concentration, or poorly distributed across accessible areas of the grid, as well as for samples that may adopt a preferred orientation. Here, we present a detailed description of the "Waffle Method" protocol for vitrifying thick specimens followed by a semi-automated milling procedure using the Thermo Fisher Scientific (TFS) Aquilos 2 cryo-FIB/scanning electron microscope (SEM) instrument and AutoTEM Cryo software to produce cryo-lamellae. With this protocol, cryo-lamellae may be generated from specimens, such as microsporidia spores, yeast, bacteria, and mammalian cells, as well as purified proteins and protein complexes. An experienced lab can perform the entire protocol presented here within an 8-hour working day, resulting in two to three cryo-lamellae with target thicknesses of 100-200 nm and dimensions of approximately 12 μm width and 15-20 μm length. For cryo-FIB/SEMs with particularly low-contamination chambers, the protocol can be extended to overnight milling, resulting in up to 16 cryo-lamellae in 24 h. Graphical abstract.

Architecture of the human erythrocyte ankyrin-1 complex

The stability and shape of the erythrocyte membrane is provided by the ankyrin-1 complex, but how it tethers the spectrin-actin cytoskeleton to the lipid bilayer and the nature of its association with the band 3 anion exchanger and the Rhesus glycoproteins remains unknown. Here we present structures of ankyrin-1 complexes purified from human erythrocytes. We reveal the architecture of a core complex of ankyrin-1, the Rhesus proteins RhAG and RhCE, the band 3 anion exchanger, protein 4.2, glycophorin A and glycophorin B. The distinct T-shaped conformation of membrane-bound ankyrin-1 facilitates recognition of RhCE and, unexpectedly, the water channel aquaporin-1. Together, our results uncover the molecular details of ankyrin-1 association with the erythrocyte membrane, and illustrate the mechanism of ankyrin-mediated membrane protein clustering.

The vascular clock: a new insight into endothelial cells and pericytes crosstalk

Background/Introduction

Circadian rhythms, defined as biological oscillations with a period of circa 24h, regulate many physiological processes in the cardiovascular system, such as vascular function, vascular tone, blood pressure, heart rate and thrombus formation [1]. The vasculature responds to the main pacemaker located in the brain, but it also possesses its own clock. Indeed, a molecular clock has been identified in endothelial cells (EC) and smooth muscle cells (SMC). The disruption of the circadian clock profoundly affects cardiovascular functionality with adverse cardiovascular events such as myocardial infarction or stroke showing a 24h rhythmicity with a peak incidence in the early morning. Among several mechanisms affected by circadian dysregulation, angiogenesis plays a fundamental role in homeostasis and development of new blood vessels. EC and pericytes (PC) are the two main cell populations in the capillaries, and their physical and paracrine interaction drives and regulates the sprouting. However, the presence and the role of circadian rhythms in pericytes and whether the molecular clock affects the endothelial/pericyte interactions remain unexplored.

Purpose

The aim of this study is to identify a molecular clock in human vascular pericytes and elucidate the impact of the circadian clock on the formation of new blood vessels.

Methods

Human primary PC were synchronised and the rhythmicity of clock genes measured by luminescence, immunofluorescence, and qPCR. Synchronised PC were co-cultured with Bmal1::LUC human primary EC. The effect of PC synchronisation and circadian clock disruption by shRNA on EC clock genes and angiogenic potential were measured by luminescence and Matrigel assay, respectively. A macroporous polyurethane scaffold was developed for 3D co-cultures.

Results

PC presented rhythmic expression of the principal circadian genes with a circa 24h period but in our experimental setting, EC did not show circadian rhythmicity. Synchronised PC supported the rhythmic expression of the clock gene Bmal1 in EC in a contact co-culture system, suggesting a secondary form of EC molecular clock regulation. Non-contact co-cultures failed to synchronise EC. Furthermore, when the clock was disrupted in PC, their capacity to support EC's tube-forming capacity on Matrigel was impaired; clock disruption in EC did not affect angiogenesis, supporting the hypothesis that a disrupted clock in perivascular cells affects angiogenesis. In a 3D tissue engineering scaffold seeded with both EC and PC, the synchronisation of the clock led to the development of organised vascular-like structures around the scaffold's pores, as compared to the non-synchronised condition where cells appeared disorganised.

Conclusion

This study defines for the first time the existence of an endogenous molecular circadian clock in perivascular cells and suggests implications for circadian clock synchronisation in physiological and therapeutic angiogenesis.

Funding Acknowledgement

Type of funding sources: Public Institution(s). Main funding source(s): University of Surrey Doctoral CollegeUniversity of Surrey Bioprocess and Biochemical Engineering (BioProChem) Group.

The Big Breakfast Study: Chrono-nutrition influence on energy expenditure and bodyweight

A growing body of evidence highlights the importance of the biological clock as a modulator of energy balance and metabolism. Recent studies in humans have shown that ingested calories are apparently utilised more efficiently in the morning than in the evening and this is manifest through improved weight loss, even under iso-energetic calorie intake. The mechanisms behind this enhanced morning energy metabolism are not yet clear, although it may result from behavioural adaptations or circadian driven variations in physiology and energy metabolism. A major objective of the newly funded Big Breakfast Study therefore is to investigate the mechanistic basis of this amplified morning thermogenesis leading to enhanced weight loss, by exploring behavioural and physiological adaptations in energy expenditure alongside the underlying circadian biology. This report briefly discusses the current research linking meal timing, circadian rhythms and metabolism; highlights the research gaps; and provides an overview of the studies being undertaken as part of the Medical Research Council-funded Big Breakfast Study.

Precision of bone density and micro-architectural properties at the distal radius and tibia in children: an HR-pQCT study

Precision errors need to be known when monitoring bone micro-architecture in children with HR-pQCT. Precision errors for trabecular bone micro-architecture ranged from 1 to 8% when using the standard evaluation at the radius and tibia. Precision errors for cortical bone micro-architecture ranged from 1 to 11% when using the advanced cortical evaluation.

INTRODUCTION

Our objective was to define HR-pQCT precision errors (CV%_RMS) and least significant changes (LSCs) at the distal radius and tibia in children using the standard evaluation and the advanced cortical evaluation.

METHODS

We scanned the distal radius (7% of ulnar length) and tibia (8% of tibia length) of 32 children (age range 8-13; mean age 11.3; SD 1.6 years) twice (1 week apart) using HR-pQCT (XtremeCT1). We calculated root-mean-squared coefficients of variation (CV%_RMS) to define precision errors and LSC to identify differences required to detect change.

RESULTS

Precision errors ranged between 1-8 and 1-5% for trabecular bone outcomes (obtained with standard evaluation) and between 1.5-11 and 0.5-6% for cortical bone outcomes (obtained with advanced cortical evaluation) at the distal radius and tibia, respectively. Related LSCs ranged between 3-21 and 3-14% for trabecular bone outcomes and between 4-30 and 2-16% for cortical bone outcomes at the distal radius and tibia, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

HR-pQCT precision errors were between 1 and 8% (LSC 3-21%) for trabecular bone outcomes and 1 and 11% (LSC 2-30%) for cortical bone outcomes at the radius and tibia in children. Cortical bone outcomes obtained using the advanced cortical evaluation appeared to have lower precision errors than cortical outcomes derived using the standard evaluation. These findings, combined with better-defined cortical bone contours with advanced cortical evaluation, indicate that metrics from advanced cortical evaluation should be utilized when monitoring cortical bone properties in children.

Differential effects of air conditioning type on residential endotoxin levels in a semi-arid climate

Residential endotoxin exposure is associated with protective and pathogenic health outcomes. Evaporative coolers, an energy-efficient type of air conditioner used in dry climates, are a potential source of indoor endotoxins; however, this association is largely unstudied. We collected settled dust biannually from four locations in homes with evaporative coolers (n=18) and central air conditioners (n=22) in Utah County, Utah (USA), during winter (Jan-Apr) and summer (Aug-Sept), 2014. Dust samples (n=281) were analyzed by the Limulus amebocyte lysate test. Housing factors were measured by survey, and indoor temperature and relative humidity measures were collected during both seasons. Endotoxin concentrations (EU/mg) were significantly higher in homes with evaporative coolers from mattress and bedroom floor samples during both seasons. Endotoxin surface loads (EU/m² ) were significantly higher in homes with evaporative coolers from mattress and bedroom floor samples during both seasons and in upholstered furniture during winter. For the nine significant season-by-location comparisons, EU/mg and EU/m² were approximately three to six times greater in homes using evaporative coolers. A plausible explanation for these findings is that evaporative coolers serve as a reservoir and distribution system for Gram-negative bacteria or their cell wall components in homes.

Cortical Bone Porosity: What Is It, Why Is It Important, and How Can We Detect It?

There is growing recognition of the role of micro-architecture in osteoporotic bone loss and fragility. This trend has been driven by advances in imaging technology, which have enabled a transition from measures of mass to micro-architecture. Imaging trabecular bone has been a key research focus, but advances in resolution have also enabled the detection of cortical bone micro-architecture, particularly the network of vascular canals, commonly referred to as 'cortical porosity.' This review aims to provide an overview of what this level of porosity is, why it is important, and how it can be characterized by imaging. Moving beyond a 'trabeculocentric' view of bone loss holds the potential to improve diagnosis and monitoring of interventions. Furthermore, cortical porosity is intimately linked to the remodeling process, which underpins bone loss, and thus a larger potential exists to improve our fundamental understanding of bone health through imaging of both humans and animal models.

In vivo precision of three HR-pQCT-derived finite element models of the distal radius and tibia in postmenopausal women

Background

The distal radius is the most common osteoporotic fracture site occurring in postmenopausal women. Finite element (FE) modeling is a non-invasive mathematical technique that can estimate bone strength using inputted geometry/micro-architecture and tissue material properties from computed tomographic images. Our first objective was to define and compare in vivo precision errors for three high-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography (HR-pQCT, XtremeCT; Scanco) based FE models of the distal radius and tibia in postmenopausal women. Our second objective was to assess the role of scan interval, scan quality, and common region on precision errors of outcomes for each FE model.

Methods

Models included: single-tissue model (STM), cortical-trabecular dual-tissue model (DTM), and one scaled model using imaged bone mineral density (E-BMD). Using HR-pQCT, we scanned the distal radius and tibia of 34 postmenopausal women (74 ± 7 years), at two time points. Primary outcomes included: tissue stiffness, apparent modulus, average von Mises stress, and failure load. Precision errors (root-mean-squared coefficient of variation, CV%_RMS) were calculated. Multivariate ANOVA was used to compare the mean of individual CV% among the 3 HR-pQCT-based FE models. Spearman correlations were used to characterize the associations between precision errors of all FE model outcomes and scan/time interval, scan quality, and common region. Significance was accepted at P < 0.05.

Results

At the distal radius, CV%_RMS precision errors were <9 % (Range STM: 2.8–5.3 %; DTM: 2.9–5.4 %; E-BMD: 4.4–8.7 %). At the distal tibia, CV%_RMS precision errors were <6 % (Range STM: 2.7–4.8 %; DTM: 2.9–3.8 %; E-BMD: 1.8–2.5 %). At the radius, Spearman correlations indicated associations between the common region and associated precision errors of the E-BMD-derived apparent modulus (ρ = −0.392; P < 0.001) and von Mises stress (ρ = −0.297; P = 0.007).

Conclusion

Results suggest that the STM and DTM are more precise for modeling apparent modulus, average von Mises stress, and failure load at the distal radius. Precision errors were comparable for all three models at the distal tibia. Results indicate that the noted differences in precision error at the distal radius were associated with the common scan region, illustrating the importance of participant repositioning within the cast and reference line placement in the scout view during the scanning process.

Role of endocortical contouring methods on precision of HR-pQCT-derived cortical micro-architecture in postmenopausal women and young adults

Precision errors of cortical bone micro-architecture from high-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT) ranged from 1 to 16 % and did not differ between automatic or manually modified endocortical contour methods in postmenopausal women or young adults. In postmenopausal women, manually modified contours led to generally higher cortical bone properties when compared to the automated method.

INTRODUCTION

First, the objective of the study was to define in vivo precision errors (coefficient of variation root mean square (CV%RMS)) and least significant change (LSC) for cortical bone micro-architecture using two endocortical contouring methods: automatic (AUTO) and manually modified (MOD) in two groups (postmenopausal women and young adults) from high-resolution pQCT (HR-pQCT) scans. Second, it was to compare precision errors and bone outcomes obtained with both methods within and between groups.

METHODS

Using HR-pQCT, we scanned twice the distal radius and tibia of 34 postmenopausal women (mean age ± SD 74 ± 7 years) and 30 young adults (27 ± 9 years). Cortical micro-architecture was determined using AUTO and MOD contour methods. CV%RMS and LSC were calculated. Repeated measures and multivariate ANOVA were used to compare mean CV% and bone outcomes between the methods within and between the groups. Significance was accepted at P < 0.05.

RESULTS

CV%RMS ranged from 0.9 to 16.3 %. Within-group precision did not differ between evaluation methods. Compared to young adults, postmenopausal women had better precision for radial cortical porosity (precision difference 9.3 %) and pore volume (7.5 %) with MOD. Young adults had better precision for cortical thickness (0.8 %, MOD) and tibial cortical density (0.2 %, AUTO). In postmenopausal women, MOD resulted in 0.2-54 % higher values for most cortical outcomes, as well as 6-8 % lower radial and tibial cortical BMD and 2 % lower tibial cortical thickness.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that AUTO and MOD endocortical contour methods provide comparable repeatability. In postmenopausal women, manual modification of endocortical contours led to generally higher cortical bone properties when compared to the automated method, while no between-method differences were observed in young adults.

Bone strength and muscle properties in postmenopausal women with and without a recent distal radius fracture

Distal radius (wrist) fracture (DRF) in women over age 50 years is an early sign of bone fragility. Women with a recent DRF compared to women without DRF demonstrated lower bone strength, muscle density, and strength, but no difference in dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) measures, suggesting DXA alone may not be a sufficient predictor for DRF risk.

INTRODUCTION

The objective of this study was to investigate differences in bone and muscle properties between women with and without a recent DRF.

METHODS

One hundred sixty-six postmenopausal women (50-78 years) were recruited. Participants were excluded if they had taken bone-altering medications in the past 6 months or had medical conditions that severely affected daily living or the upper extremity. Seventy-seven age-matched women with a fracture in the past 6-24 months (Fx, n = 32) and without fracture (NFx, n = 45) were measured for bone and muscle properties using the nondominant (NFx) or non-fractured limb (Fx). Peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT) was used to estimate bone strength in compression (BSIc) at the distal radius and tibia, bone strength in torsion (SSIp) at the shaft sites, muscle density, and area at the forearm and lower leg. Areal bone mineral density at the ultradistal forearm, spine, and femoral neck was measured by DXA. Grip strength and the 30-s chair stand test were used as estimates of upper and lower extremity muscle strength. Limb-specific between-group differences were compared using multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA).

RESULTS

There was a significant group difference (p < 0.05) for the forearm and lower leg, with the Fx group demonstrating 16 and 19% lower BSIc, 3 and 6% lower muscle density, and 20 and 21% lower muscle strength at the upper and lower extremities, respectively. There were no differences between groups for DXA measures.

CONCLUSIONS

Women with recent DRF had lower pQCT-derived estimated bone strength at the distal radius and tibia and lower muscle density and strength at both extremities.

Knee osteoarthritis patients with severe nocturnal pain have altered proximal tibial subchondral bone mineral density

OBJECTIVE

Our objective was to investigate relationships between proximal tibial subchondral bone mineral density (BMD) and nocturnal pain in patients with knee osteoarthritis (OA).

METHODS

The preoperative knee of 42 patients booked for knee arthroplasty was scanned using quantitative computed tomography (QCT). Pain was measured using the Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Arthritis Index (WOMAC) and participants were categorized into three groups: 'no pain', 'moderate pain', and 'severe pain' while lying down at night. We used depth-specific image processing to assess tibial subchondral BMD at normalized depths of 0-2.5 mm, 2.5-5.0 mm and 5-10 mm relative to the subchondral surface. Regional analyses of each medial and lateral plateau included total BMD and maximum BMD within a 10 mm diameter core or 'focal spot'. The association between WOMAC pain scores and BMD measurements was assessed using Spearman's rank correlation. Regional BMD was compared pairwise between pain and no pain groups using multivariate analysis of covariance using age, sex, and BMI as covariates and Bonferroni adjustment for multiple comparisons.

RESULTS

Lateral focal BMD at the 2.5-5 mm depth was related to nocturnal pain (ρ = 0.388, P = 0.011). The lateral focal BMD was 33% higher in participants with 'severe pain' than participants with 'no pain' at 2.5-5 mm depth (P = 0.028) and 32% higher at 5-10 mm depth (P = 0.049). There were no BMD differences at 0-2.5 mm from the subchondral surface.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that local subchondral bone density may have a role in elucidating OA-related pain pathogenesis.

Comparison of obesity among Chinese and U.S. Special Olympic athletes with intellectual disabilities

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Obesity is a health problem in China, but there are no reports on the obesity status of Chinese citizens with intellectual disabilities (ID). Research has shown that adults with ID have higher body mass index (BMI) than adults without ID, but this information is primarily based on populations residing in North American and European countries. The purpose of this study was to compare BMI and obesity status of Chinese and U.S. Special Olympic athletes with ID.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

Height, weight, BMI and self-reported physical activity (SRPA) data from the Special Olympics 2006 U.S. National Games and 2007 Shanghai World Games databases were analyzed. Linear and logistic analyses were conducted for continuous data and dichotomous variables, respectively. Predictor variables were age, gender, country, SRPA, and obesity status according to country specific criteria. Significance was set at p < 0.05.

RESULTS

The U.S. group had significantly higher BMI values than their Chinese counterparts. Age (p = 0.001) and country (p = <0.001) were the main predictors of BMI and obesity status, even when country-specific standards of obesity classifications were used. Holding all other factors constant, each unit increase of age was associated with increased odds for obesity by a factor of 1.04 and the odds of obesity occurring in U.S. athletes was 2.47 times greater than in Chinese athletes.

CONCLUSION

Obesity is an emerging health problem for Chinese adults with ID. Participation in Special Olympics does not offset obesity in people with ID and other methods of intervention are needed to address obesity in this population segment. This is a global health concern that requires immediate attention.

Linearity and sex-specificity of impact force prediction during a fall onto the outstretched hand using a single-damper-model

OBJECTIVES

To assess the linearity and sex-specificity of damping coefficients used in a single-damper-model (SDM) when predicting impact forces during the worst-case falling scenario from fall heights up to 25 cm.

METHODS

Using 3-dimensional motion tracking and an integrated force plate, impact forces and impact velocities were assessed from 10 young adults (5 males; 5 females), falling from planted knees onto outstretched arms, from a random order of drop heights: 3, 5, 7, 10, 15, 20, and 25 cm. We assessed the linearity and sex-specificity between impact forces and impact velocities across all fall heights using analysis of variance linearity test and linear regression, respectively. Significance was accepted at P<0.05.

RESULTS

Association between impact forces and impact velocities up to 25 cm was linear (P=0.02). Damping coefficients appeared sex-specific (males: 627 Ns/m, R(2)=0.70; females: 421 Ns/m; R(2)=0.81; sex combined: 532 Ns/m, R(2)=0.61).

CONCLUSIONS

A linear damping coefficient used in the SDM proved valid for predicting impact forces from fall heights up to 25 cm. RESULTS suggested the use of sex-specific damping coefficients when estimating impact force using the SDM and calculating the factor-of-risk for wrist fractures.

Effect of short chain fatty acids on the expression of free fatty acid receptor 2 (Ffar2), Ffar3 and early-stage adipogenesis

Adipose tissue has a major influence on insulin sensitivity. Stimulation of free fatty acid receptor 2 (FFAR2) has been proposed to influence adipocyte differentiation. We hypothesised that exposing preadipocytes to short chain fatty acids would induce earlier expression of nuclear receptors that co-ordinate adipogenesis, triglyceride accumulation and leptin secretion. 3T3-L1 preadipocytes were differentiated in the presence of 1 μM acetate, 0.1-10 μM propionate or vehicle control. In experiment 1, expression of Ffar2 and nuclear receptor mRNA was measured by quantitative PCR over 48 h following onset of differentiation. In experiment 2, extracellular leptin concentration and intracellular triglyceride content were measured at days 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 following the onset of differentiation. Control cells exhibited similar temporal dynamics of gene expression, triglyceride accumulation and leptin secretion as reported previously. We were unable to detect expression of Ffar3 mRNA at any stage of differentiation. Consistent with a lack of Ffar2 expression in the first 24 h of differentiation, acetate and propionate had no significant effect on nuclear receptor expression. Furthermore, acetate or propionate treatment did not alter leptin concentration or triglyceride content. In conclusion, we observed no significant effect of propionate or acetate on adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 cells using validated quantitative techniques.

Characterizing microarchitectural changes at the distal radius and tibia in postmenopausal women using HR-pQCT

Limited prospective evidence exists regarding bone microarchitectural deterioration. We report annual changes in trabecular and cortical bone microarchitecture at the distal radius and tibia in postmenopausal women. Lost trabeculae with corresponding increase in trabecular thickness at the radius and thinning tibial cortex indicated trabecularization of the cortex at both sites.

INTRODUCTION

Osteoporosis is characterized by low bone mass and the deterioration of bone microarchitecture. However, limited prospective evidence exists regarding bone microarchitectural changes in postmenopausal women: a population prone to sustaining osteoporotic fractures. Our primary objective was to characterize the annual change in bone area, density, and microarchitecture at the distal radius and distal tibia in postmenopausal women.

METHODS

Distal radius and tibia were measured using high-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography (HR-pQCT) at baseline and 1 year later in 51 women (mean age ± SD, 77 ± 7 years) randomly sampled from the Saskatoon cohort of the Canadian Multicentre Osteoporosis Study (CaMos). We used repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Bonferroni adjustment for multiple comparisons to characterize the mean annual change in total density, cortical perimeter, trabecular and cortical bone area, density, content, and microarchitecture. Significant changes were accepted at P < 0.05.

RESULTS

At the distal radius in women without bone-altering drugs, total density (-1.7%) and trabecular number (-6.4%) decreased, while trabecular thickness (+6.0%), separation (+8.6%), and heterogeneity (+12.1%) increased. At their distal tibia, cortical area (-4.5%), density (-1.9%), content (-6.3%), and thickness (-4.4%) decreased, while trabecular area (+0.4%) increased.

CONCLUSIONS

The observed loss of trabeculae with concomitant increase in trabecular size at the distal radius and the declined cortical thickness, density, and content at the distal tibia indicated a site-specific trabecularization of the cortical bone in postmenopausal women.

Regional depth-specific subchondral bone density measures in osteoarthritic and normal patellae: in vivo precision and preliminary comparisons

SUMMARY

Computed tomography-based depth-specific image processing is able to precisely identify regional differences between healthy patellae and patellae with osteoarthritis.

INTRODUCTION

This study aims to assess the precision errors and potential differences in regional, depth-specific subchondral bone mineral density (BMD) in normal and osteoarthritic (OA) human patellae in vivo using CT-based density analyses.

METHODS

Fourteen participants (2 men and 12 women; mean age, 51.4; SD, 11.8 years) were scanned using clinical quantitative CT (QCT) three times over 2 days. Participants were categorized as either normal (n = 7) or exhibiting radiographic OA (n = 7). Average subchondral BMD was assessed at three depths relative to the subchondral surface. Regional BMD analysis included: total lateral facet BMD, total medial facet BMD, and superior/middle/inferior BMD of lateral and medial facets at normalized depths of 0-2.5, 2.5-5, and 5-7.5 mm from the subchondral surface. We assessed precision using root mean square coefficients of variation (CV%). We evaluated differences between OA and normal BMD by (1) calculating percentage differences between the groups (in relation to normal BMD) (2) relating percentage differences to respective CV% errors and (3) determining effect sizes using Cohen's d.

RESULTS

Root mean square CV% precision errors ranged from 1.1 to 5.9 %. Percentage differences between OA and normal BMD varied from -1.6 to -30.1 % (BMD lower in OA patellae). In relation to precision errors, percentage differences were, on average, 5.5× greater than CV% errors. Cohen's d effect sizes ranged from -1.7 to -0.1. Largest differences were noted at depths of 2.5-5 and 5-7.5 mm from the subchondral surface.

CONCLUSIONS

Patellar subchondral BMD measures were precise (average CV%, ≤3 %). This region- and depth-specific CT-based imaging tool characterized regional standardized BMD differences between normal and OA patellae in vivo.

Magnetic resonance imaging of bone and muscle traits at the hip: an in vivo precision study

OBJECTIVE

To determine the in vivo precision of MRI-based measures of bone and muscle traits at the hip.

METHODS

Left proximal femoral neck and shaft of 14 participants (5M:9 F; age:21-68) were scanned 3 times using a 1.5 T MRI. Commercial and custom image processing methods were used to derive bone geometry and strength traits at the proximal femoral neck and shaft along with muscle area of various muscle groups at the shaft site. For precision, root mean square coefficients of variation (CV%rms) and standard deviations (SDrms) were calculated.

RESULTS

At the femoral neck, CV%rms for area-based bone measures ranged between 1.7-5.0%; CV%rms for cortical thickness varied from 4.7 to 5.6%; and CV%rms for bending, torsional and buckling-based strength indices ranged between 4.6-7.1%. At the femoral shaft, CV%rms for bone area ranged between 1.2-3.0%; CV%rms for cortical thickness varied from 1.7 to 2.0%; and CV%rms for bending and buckling-based strength indices ranged between 1.4-3.1%. For muscle area, CV%rms ranged between 1.3-4.5%.

CONCLUSIONS

MRI-based measures of bone and muscle traits at the proximal femoral neck and shaft demonstrated in vivo precision errors <7.1%. MRI is a promising 3D technique for monitoring changes in bone and muscle at the clinically important hip.

Monitoring time interval for pQCT-derived bone outcomes in postmenopausal women

Evidence of measurement precision, annual changes and monitoring time interval is essential when designing and interpreting longitudinal studies. Despite the precise measures, small annual changes in bone properties led to monitoring time intervals (MTIs) of 2-6 years in peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT)-derived radial and tibial bone area, density, and estimated strength in postmenopausal women.

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of the study was to determine the precision error, annual change, and MTI in bone density, area, and strength parameters in postmenopausal women.

METHODS

Postmenopausal women (n = 114) from the Saskatoon cohort of the Canadian Multicentre Osteoporosis Study had annual pQCT scans of the distal and shaft sites of the radius and tibia for 2 years. Median annualized rates of percent change and the MTI were calculated for bone density, area, and strength parameters. Root mean squared coefficients of variation (CV%) were calculated from duplicate scans in a random subgroup of 35 postmenopausal women.

RESULTS

CV% ranged from 1.4 to 6.1 % at the radius and 0.7 to 2.1 % at the tibia. MTIs for the distal radius were 3 years for total bone density (ToD) and 4 years for total bone cross sectional area (ToA), trabecular area, and bone strength index. At the diaphyseal radius, MTI was 3 years for ToA, 5 years for cortical density, and 6 years for polar stress strain index (SSIp). Similarly, MTI for total and trabecular density was 3 years at the distal tibia. At the diaphyseal tibia, MTI for ToA was 3 years and SSIp 4 years.

CONCLUSION

MTI for longitudinal studies in older postmenopausal women should be at least 2-6 years at the radius and tibia, with specific monitoring of the total and trabecular area, total density, and bone strength at the radius and total and trabecular density, total area, and bone strength at the tibia.

Direct in vivo strain measurements in human bone-a systematic literature review

Bone strain is the governing stimuli for the remodeling process necessary in the maintenance of bone's structure and mechanical strength. Strain gages are the gold standard and workhorses of human bone experimental strain analysis in vivo. The objective of this systematic literature review is to provide an overview for direct in vivo human bone strain measurement studies and place the strain results within context of current theories of bone remodeling (i.e. mechanostat theory). We employed a standardized search strategy without imposing any time restriction to find English language studies indexed in PubMed and Web of Science databases that measured human bone strain in vivo. Twenty-four studies met our final inclusion criteria. Seven human bones were subjected to strain measurements in vivo including medial tibia, second metatarsal, calcaneus, proximal femur, distal radius, lamina of vertebra and dental alveolar. Peak strain magnitude recorded was 9096 με on the medial tibia during basketball rebounding and the peak strain rate magnitude was -85,500 με/s recorded at the distal radius during forward fall from standing, landing on extended hands. The tibia was the most exposed site for in vivo strain measurements due to accessibility and being a common pathologic site of stress fracture in the lower extremity. This systematic review revealed that most of the strains measured in vivo in different bones were generally within the physiological loading zone defined by the mechanostat theory, which implies stimulation of functional adaptation necessary to maintain bone mechanical integrity.

Adipose tissue, adipocytes and the circadian timing system

Circadian clocks time the daily occurrence of multiple aspects of behaviour and physiology. Through studies of chronic misalignment between our internal clocks and the environment (e.g. during shift work), it has long been postulated that disruption of circadian rhythms is detrimental to human health. Recent advances in understanding of the cellular and molecular basis of mammalian circadian timing mechanisms have identified many key genes involved in circadian rhythm generation and demonstrated the presence of clocks throughout the body. Furthermore, clear links between sleep, circadian rhythms and metabolic function have been revealed, and much current research is studying these links in more detail. Here, we review the evidence linking circadian rhythms, clock genes and adipose biology. We also highlight gaps in our understanding and finally suggest avenues for future research.

Computed tomography topographic mapping of subchondral density (CT-TOMASD) in osteoarthritic and normal knees: methodological development and preliminary findings

OBJECTIVES

To develop a precise imaging tool which measures three-dimensional (3D) subchondral bone mineral density (BMD), and investigate its ability to distinguish subchondral bone properties in osteoarthritic and normal cadaveric tibiae.

METHODS

We developed a novel imaging tool [Computed tomography topographic mapping of subchondral density (CT-TOMASD)], which employs a surface projection image processing technique to map 3D subchondral BMD measured in relation to depth from the joint surface. Sixteen intact cadaver knees from 10 donors (8M:2F; age: 77.8+/-7.4) were scanned using quantitative computed tomography (QCT). Projections of average BMD to normalized depths of 2.5mm and 5.0mm were acquired, with regional analyses including: (1) medial and lateral BMD, (2) anterior/central/posterior compartmental BMD, (3) max BMD contained within a 10mm diameter 'core', and (4) medial:lateral BMD ratio. Precision was assessed using coefficients of variation (CV%). Osteoarthritis (OA) severity was assessed by examination of computed tomography (CT) and fluoroscopic radiographic images, and categorized using modified Kellgren-Lawrence (mKL) scoring.

RESULTS

Precision errors for CT-TOMASD BMD measures were focused around 1.5%, reaching a maximum CV% of 3.5%. OA was identified in eight compartments of six knees. Substantial qualitative and quantitative differences were observed between the OA and normal knees, with the medial:lateral BMD ratio and peak core regional analyses demonstrating differences greater than 4.7 standard deviations (SDs) when compared with normals. Preliminary results revealed effect sizes ranging from 1.6 to 4.3 between OA and normal knees.

CONCLUSIONS

CT-TOMASD offers precise 3D measures of subchondral BMD. Preliminary results demonstrate large qualitative and quantitative differences and large effect sizes between OA and normal knees. This method has the potential to identify and quantify changes in subchondral BMD associated with OA disease progression.

Strength indices from pQCT imaging predict up to 85% of variance in bone failure properties at tibial epiphysis and diaphysis

Our primary objective was to validate the Bone Strength Index for compression (BSIC) by determining the amount of variance in failure load and stiffness that was explained by BSIC and bone properties at two distal sites in human cadaveric tibiae when tested in axial compression. Our secondary objective was to assess the variance in failure moment and flexural rigidity that was explained by bone properties, geometry and strength indices in the tibial diaphysis when tested in 4-point bending. Twenty cadaver tibiae pairs from 5 female and 5 male donors (mean age 74 yrs, SD 6 yrs) were measured at the distal epiphysis (4 and 10% sites of the tibial length from the distal end) and diaphysis (50 and 66% sites) by peripheral Quantitative Computed Tomography (pQCT; XCT 2000, Stratec). After imaging, we conducted axial compression tests on the distal tibia and 4-point bending tests on the diaphysis. Total bone mineral content and BSIC (product of total area and squared density of the cross-section) at the 4% site predicted 75% and 85% of the variance in the failure load and 52% and 57% in stiffness, respectively. At the diaphyseal sites 80% or more of the variance in failure moment and/or flexural rigidity was predicted by total and cortical area and content, geometry and strength indices corresponding to the axes of bending.

Making minimally invasive THR safe: conclusions from biomechanical simulation and analysis

The use of smaller surgical incisions has become popularized for total hip arthroplasty (THR) because of the potential benefits of shorter recovery and improved cosmetic appearance. However, an increased incidence of serious complications has been reported. To minimize the risks of minimally invasive approaches to THR, we have developed an experimental approach which enables us to evaluate risk factors in these procedures through cadaveric simulations performed within the laboratory. During cadaveric hip replacement procedures performed via posterior and antero-lateral mini-incisions, pressures developed between the wound edges and the retractors were approximately double those recorded during conventional hip replacement using Charnley retractors (p < 0.01). In MIS procedures performed via the dual-incision approach, lack of direct visualisation of the proximal femur led to misalignment of broaches and implants with increased risk of cortical fracture during canal preparation and implant insertion. Cadaveric simulation of surgical procedures allows surgeons to measure variables affecting the technical success of surgery and to master new procedures without placing patients at risk.

Regulation of MT melatonin receptor expression in the foetal rat pituitary

During development, melatonin receptors are transiently expressed in multiple neuroendocrine tissues, suggesting a novel role for melatonin in developmental physiology. The best characterised model of melatonin signalling during development is the pars distalis of the rat pituitary. However, although many studies have characterised the postnatal decline of melatonin receptors in the rat pars distalis, the mechanism(s) that time the developmental onset of receptor expression during embryogenesis are unknown. Analysis of these mechanisms may yield important information regarding the putative role of melatonin in neuroendocrine development. Here, we report the expression of MT(1) melatonin receptor mRNA in the rat pituitary from embryonic day 15.5 (e15.5). Prior to e15.5, the homeodomain transcription factor Msx-1, an inhibitor of cellular differentiation, is widely expressed throughout the pituitary. In transient transfection experiments, Msx-1 potently inhibited pituitary homeobox-1 (Pitx-1)-induced MT(1) promoter activity and therefore may represent a key inhibitor of MT(1) expression in early pituitary development. During late embryogenesis, MT(1) mRNA was expressed in both the ventral and dorsal pituitary. Analysis of a 1.5-kb fragment of the rat MT(1) promoter revealed four putative cis-elements for the POU domain factor Pit-1, which is associated with mid-dorsal cell lineages. Although Pit-1 induced a strong, dose-dependent stimulation of MT(1) promoter activity in vitro, dual-labelled in situ hybridisation revealed no colocalisation of MT(1) and Pit-1 mRNAs in vivo at e19.5. By contrast, all MT(1) positive cells colocalised with alphaGSU and most with betaTSH mRNA. Our data therefore implicate the decline of Msx-1 expression as a key event that times the onset of melatonin receptor expression to the differentiation of endocrine cells types in the developing pituitary gland, and suggest that the melatonin-sensitive cells in the embryonic pituitary are primarily Pit-1-independent thyrotrophs in the rostral pituitary, with a secondary population of pars distalis gonadotrophs.

Measuring seasonal time within the circadian system: regulation of the suprachiasmatic nuclei by photoperiod

Day-length (photoperiod) is the primary environmental signal used to synchronise endogenous rhythms of physiology and behaviour. In mammals, the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) of the hypothalamus house the master circadian clock. The SCN incorporate photoperiodic information and therefore measure both daily and seasonal time. Over the past decade, there have been significant advances in the understanding of the molecular basis of circadian clocks. It is now becoming apparent that the core molecular clock mechanism is itself regulated by photoperiod, although there is currently debate as to how this occurs. One recent model proposes that distinct groups of core 'clock genes' are associated with either morning or evening phases of the daily light/dark cycle. However, the validity of associating particular genes to morning and evening has been questioned. This article reviews the evidence for photoperiodic regulation of circadian clock function and then discusses alternative models that may explain the available data.

The contribution of Dr. Mary Walker towards myasthenia gravis and periodic paralysis whilst working in poor law hospitals in London

Dr. Mary Walker discovered in 1934 that physostigmine and Prostigmin temporarily restored muscle function in patients with myasthenia gravis. In the next five years, Dr. Walker and colleagues provided clinical evidence for the weakness of myasthenia gravis being caused by a "disturbance of transmission of excitation from motor nerve to voluntary muscle presumably caused by a deficiency of acetylcholine. Physostigmine (or Prostigmin) compensated for the lack of acetylcholine by delaying its destruction." Dr. Walker and colleagues also described the association between familial periodic paralysis and hypokalaemia.

Rhythmic melatonin secretion does not correlate with the expression of arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase, inducible cyclic amp early repressor, period1 or cryptochrome1 mRNA in the sheep pineal

The pineal gland, through nocturnal melatonin, acts as a neuroendocrine transducer of daily and seasonal time. Melatonin synthesis is driven by rhythmic activation of the rate-limiting enzyme, arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase (AA-NAT). In ungulates, AA-NAT mRNA is constitutively high throughout the 24-h cycle, and melatonin production is primarily controlled through effects on AA-NAT enzyme activity; this is in contrast to dominant transcriptional control in rodents. To determine whether there has been a selective loss of circadian control of AA-NAT mRNA expression in the sheep pineal, we measured the expression of other genes known to be rhythmic in rodents (inducible cAMP early repressor ICER, the circadian clock genes Period1 and Cryptochrome1, as well as AA-NAT). We first assayed gene expression in pineal glands collected from Soay sheep adapted to short days (Light: dark, 8-h: 16-h), and killed at 4-h intervals through 24-h. We found no evidence for rhythmic expression of ICER, AA-NAT or Cryptochrome1 under these conditions, whilst Period1 showed a low amplitude rhythm of expression, with higher values during the dark period. In a second group of animals, lights out was delayed by 8-h during the final 24-h sampling period, a manipulation that causes an immediate shortening of the period of melatonin secretion. This did not significantly affect the expression of ICER, AA-NAT or Cryptochrome1 in the pineal, whilst a slight suppressive effect on overall Per1 levels was observed. The attenuated response to photoperiod change appears to be specific to the ovine pineal, as the first long day induced rapid changes of Period1 and ICER expression in the hypothalamic suprachiasmatic nuclei and pituitary pars tuberalis, respectively. Overall, our data suggest a general reduction of circadian control of transcript abundance in the ovine pineal gland, consistent with a marked evolutionary divergence in the mechanism regulating melatonin production between terrestrial ruminants and fossorial rodents.

Photoperiodic regulation of prolactin secretion: changes in intra-pituitary signalling and lactotroph heterogeneity

Many mammalian species utilise day-length (photoperiod) to adapt their physiology to seasonal changes in environmental conditions, via secretion of pineal melatonin. Photoperiodic regulation of prolactin secretion is believed to occur via melatonin-mediated changes in the secretion of a putative prolactin secretagogue, tuberalin, from the pituitary pars tuberalis. Despite the in vivo and in vitro evidence in support of this intra-pituitary signalling mechanism, the identity of tuberalin has yet to be elucidated. This paper reviews recent advances in the characterisation of tuberalin and the regulation of its secretion. Furthermore, the hypothesis that pituitary lactotroph cells display heterogeneity in their response to changing photoperiod and tuberalin secretion is examined.

Melatonin action in the pituitary: neuroendocrine synchronizer and developmental modulator?

Melatonin inhibits the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)-stimulated secretion of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone from the pars distalis region of the neonatal rat pituitary gland. Over the initial weeks of postnatal life, this response to melatonin declines in parallel with a loss of iodo-melatonin binding sites. Although neonatal gonadotrophs have since been extensively used to study melatonin receptor signalling pathways, the mechanisms driving this phenomenon, together with its physiological significance, remain unknown. Melatonin receptors are expressed in the foetal pars distalis before activation of the GnRH system. Furthermore, the MT1 melatonin receptor promoter contains response elements for transcription factors involved in both pituitary differentiation and gonadotroph regulation. These data, coupled with the known ability of melatonin to regulate rhythmical gene expression in adult pars tuberalis cells, leads us to propose that melatonin acts in the developing animal as a regulator of internal synchrony between tissues.

Photoperiodic regulation of prolactin gene expression in the Syrian hamster by a pars tuberalis-derived factor

Syrian hamsters exhibit a marked seasonal variation in prolactin secretion. The aim of this study was to analyse the nature of the photoperiodic regulation of prolactin gene expression, and to define the role of melatonin and the pars tuberalis of the anterior pituitary in this process. Pituitary prolactin gene expression, restricted to the pars distalis, was increased in hamsters maintained in long daylengths (16 h : 8 h, light : dark) compared to hamsters exposed to short daylengths (8 h : 16 h, light : dark) for 8-12 weeks. Analysis of single cells by in situ hybridization showed that photoperiod had no effect on the percentage of pars distalis cells expressing prolactin mRNA, but shifted the frequency distribution of prolactin mRNA expression per cell, such that in long photoperiods a greater proportion of cells were recruited to a higher expressing population. In vitro coculture of hamster pars tuberalis fragments increased prolactin promoter-driven luciferase activity in stably transfected GH3 cells in a dose- and duration-dependent manner. Conditioned medium from hamster and ovine pars tuberalis also activated the prolactin promoter. Furthermore, basal and forskolin-stimulated conditioned medium from hamster pars tuberalis increased prolactin mRNA expression in primary cultures of pars distalis cells. Melatonin attenuated the activity of pars tuberalis-conditioned medium but had no direct effect on either prolactin mRNA expression or secretion in pars distalis cell cultures. Finally, pars tuberalis fragments from long photoperiod hamsters stimulated prolactin gene promoter activity to a greater extent than those from short photoperiod hamsters. In conclusion, this study provides the first evidence in a seasonal mammal that the synthesis of prolactin depends on photoperiodic modulation of a pars tuberalis-derived factor. Our data support further the hypothesis that seasonal modulation of prolactin gene expression depends upon a melatonin-dependent paracrine action of the pars tuberalis on pars distalis lactotrophic cells.

The effect of thermal loading on laboratory fume hood performance

A modified version of the ANSI/ASHRAE 110-1995 Method of Testing Performance of Laboratory Fume Hoods was used to evaluate the relationship between thermal loading in a laboratory fume hood and subsequent tracer gas leakage. Three types of laboratory burners were used, alone and in combination, to thermally challenge the hood. Heat output from burners was measured in BTU/hr, which was based on the fuel heat capacity and flow rate. Hood leakage was measured between 2824 and 69,342 BTU/hr. Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) was released at 23.5 LPM for each level of thermal loading. Duct temperature was also measured during the heating process. Results indicate a linear relationship for both BTU/hr vs. hood leakage and duct temperature vs. hood leakage. Under these test conditions, each increase of 10,000 BTU/hr resulted in an additional 4 ppm SF6 in the manikin's breathing zone (r2 = 0.68). An additional 3.1 ppm SF6 was measured for every 25 degrees F increase in duct temperature (r2 = 0.60). Both BTU/hr and duct temperature models showed p < 0.001. For these tests, BTU/hr was a better predictor of hood leakage than duct temperature. The results of this study indicate that heat output may compromise fume hood performance. This finding is consistent with those of previous studies.

Flunitrazepam rapidly reduces GABA(A) receptor subunit protein expression via a protein kinase C-dependent mechanism

Acute flunitrazepam (1 microM) exposure for 1 h reduced GABA(A) receptor alpha1 (22+/-4%, mean+/-s.e.mean) and beta2/3 (21+/-4%) subunit protein levels in cultured rat cerebellar granule cells. This rapid decrease in subunit proteins was completely prevented by bisindolymaleimide 1 (1 microM), an inhibitor of protein kinase C, but not by N-[2-((p-bromocinnamyl)amino)ethyl]-5-isoquinolinesulfonamide (H-89, 4.8 microM), an inhibitor of protein kinases A and G. These results suggest the existence of a benzodiazepine-induced mechanism to rapidly alter GABA(A) receptor protein expression, that appears to be dependent on protein kinase C activity.

Regulation of GABA(A) receptor alpha1 protein is a sensitive indicator of benzodiazepine agonist efficacy

The effect of benzodiazepine agonists of varying efficacy on gamma-aminobutyric acidA receptor alpha1 subunit protein expression was determined in primary cultured cerebellar granule cells. After 48 h exposure to 1 microM drug concentrations, flunitrazepam, diazepam, and the partial agonists Ro 19-8022 and bretazenil, but not the partial agonists Ro 42-8773, Ro 41-7812 or imidazenil, decreased alpha1 subunit protein expression. The grading of effect of the benzodiazepine partial agonists on alpha1 subunit protein expression is consistent with their agonist efficacies. This model, therefore, appears to act as a sensitive indicator of benzodiazepine agonist efficacy with the ability to differentiate between partial agonists.

Cardiopathia fantastica exposed by rapid sequential serum creatine kinase analysis

Rapid, sequential serum creatine kinase measurements may be used to exclude acute myocardial infarction in patients presenting with acute chest pain. Two cases of cardiopathia fantastica (the cardiac variant of Munchausen's syndrome) are described. Both patients presented with symptoms of acute myocardial infarction and had electrocardiographic changes consistent with this diagnosis. Both patients also had a raised serum creatine kinase level at the time of presentation but were unable to mimic the rise in serum creatine kinase associated with acute myocardial infarction. Munchausen's syndrome was suspected when both patients responded poorly to news that their enzyme results excluded acute myocardial infarction.