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Santhana Gopalan PR, Xu W, Waselius T, Wikgren J, Penttonen M, Nokia MS. Cardiorespiratory rhythm-contingent trace eyeblink conditioning in elderly adults. J Neurophysiol 2024; 131:797-806. [PMID: 38533969 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00356.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2024] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Learning outcome is modified by the degree to which the subject responds and pays attention to specific stimuli. Our recent research suggests that presenting stimuli in contingency with a specific phase of the cardiorespiratory rhythm might expedite learning. Specifically, expiration-diastole (EXP-DIA) is beneficial for learning trace eyeblink conditioning (TEBC) compared with inspiration-systole (INS-SYS) in healthy young adults. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the same holds true in healthy elderly adults (n = 50, aged >70 yr). Participants were instructed to watch a silent nature film while TEBC trials were presented at either INS-SYS or EXP-DIA (separate groups). Learned responses were determined as eyeblinks occurring after the tone conditioned stimulus (CS), immediately preceding the air puff unconditioned stimulus (US). Participants were classified as learners if they made at least five conditioned responses (CRs). Brain responses to the stimuli were measured by electroencephalogram (EEG). Memory for the film and awareness of the CS-US contingency were evaluated with a questionnaire. As a result, participants showed robust brain responses to the CS, acquired CRs, and reported awareness of the CS-US relationship to a variable degree. There was no difference between the INS-SYS and EXP-DIA groups in any of the above. However, when only participants who learned were considered, those trained at EXP-DIA (n = 11) made more CRs than those trained at INS-SYS (n = 13). Thus, learned performance could be facilitated in those elderly who learned. However, training at a specific phase of cardiorespiratory rhythm did not increase the proportion of participants who learned.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We trained healthy elderly individuals in trace eyeblink conditioning, either at inspiration-systole or at expiration-diastole. Those who learned exhibited more conditioned responses when trained at expiration-diastole rather than inspiration-systole. However, there was no difference between the experimental groups in the proportion of individuals who learned or did not learn.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Weiyong Xu
- Department of Psychology and Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain ResearchUniversity of JyväskyläJyväskyläFinland
| | - Tomi Waselius
- Department of Psychology and Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain ResearchUniversity of JyväskyläJyväskyläFinland
| | - Jan Wikgren
- Department of Psychology and Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain ResearchUniversity of JyväskyläJyväskyläFinland
| | - Markku Penttonen
- Department of Psychology and Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain ResearchUniversity of JyväskyläJyväskyläFinland
| | - Miriam S Nokia
- Department of Psychology and Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain ResearchUniversity of JyväskyläJyväskyläFinland
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Wang J, Shen S, Becker B, Hei Lam Tsang M, Mei Y, Wikgren J, Lei Y. Neurocognitive mechanisms of mental imagery-based disgust learning. Behav Res Ther 2024; 175:104502. [PMID: 38402674 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2024.104502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 02/18/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
Disgust imagery represents a potential pathological mechanism for disgust-related disorders. However, it remains controversial as to whether disgust can be conditioned with disgust-evoking mental imagery serving as the unconditioned stimulus (US). Therefore, we examined this using a conditioned learning paradigm in combination with event-related potential (ERP) analysis in 35 healthy college students. The results indicated that the initial neutral face (conditioned stimulus, CS+) became more disgust-evoking, unpleasant, and arousing after pairing with disgust-evoking imagery (disgust CS+), compared to pairing with neutral (neutral CS+) and no (CS-) imagery. Moreover, we observed that mental imagery-based disgust conditioning was resistant to extinction. While the disgust CS + evoked larger P3 and late positive potential amplitudes than CS- during acquisition, no significant differences were found between disgust CS+ and neutral CS+, indicating a dissociation between self-reported and neurophysiological responses. Future studies may additionally acquire facial EMG as an implicit index of conditioned disgust. This study provides the first neurobiological evidence that associative disgust learning can occur without aversive physical stimuli, with implications for understanding how disgust-related disorders may manifest or deteriorate without external perceptual aversive experiences, such as in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinxia Wang
- Institute for Brain and Psychological Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, 610066, China; Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Department of Psychology, University of Jyvaskyla, Jyvaskyla, Finland
| | - Siyi Shen
- Institute for Brain and Psychological Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, 610066, China
| | - Benjamin Becker
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Michelle Hei Lam Tsang
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Ying Mei
- Institute for Brain and Psychological Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, 610066, China; Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Department of Psychology, University of Jyvaskyla, Jyvaskyla, Finland
| | - Jan Wikgren
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Department of Psychology, University of Jyvaskyla, Jyvaskyla, Finland
| | - Yi Lei
- Institute for Brain and Psychological Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, 610066, China.
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Salmio A, Rissanen APE, Kurkela JLO, Rottensteiner M, Seipäjärvi S, Juurakko J, Kujala UM, Laukkanen JA, Wikgren J. Cardiorespiratory fitness is linked with heart rate variability during stress in "at-risk" adults. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2024; 64:334-347. [PMID: 38213267 DOI: 10.23736/s0022-4707.23.15373-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Physiological mechanisms explaining why cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) predicts cardiovascular morbidity and mortality are incompletely understood. We examined if CRF modifies vagally mediated heart rate variability (HRV) during acute physical or psychosocial stress or night-time sleep in adults with cardiovascular risk factors. METHODS Seventy-eight adults (age 56 years [IQR 50-60], 74% female, body mass index 28 kg/m2 [IQR 25-31]) with frequent cardiovascular risk factors participated in this cross-sectional study. They went through physical (treadmill cardiopulmonary exercise test [CPET]) and psychosocial (Trier Social Stress Test for Groups [TSST-G]) stress tests and night-time sleep monitoring (polysomnography). Heart rate (HR) and vagally mediated HRV (root mean square of successive differences between normal R-R intervals [RMSSD]) were recorded during the experiments and analyzed by taking account of potential confounders. RESULTS CRF (peak O2 uptake) averaged 99% (range 78-126) in relation to reference data. From pre-rest to moderate intensities during CPET and throughout TSST-G, HR did not differ between participants with CRF below median (CRFlower) and CRF equal to or above median (CRFhigher), whereas CRFhigher had higher HRV than CRFlower, and CRF correlated positively with HRV in all participants. Meanwhile, CRF had no independent associations with HR or HRV levels during slow-wave sleep, the presence of metabolic syndrome was not associated with recorded HR or HRV levels, and single factors predicted HRV responsiveness independently only to limited extents. CONCLUSIONS CRF is positively associated with prevailing vagally mediated HRV at everyday levels of physical and psychosocial stress in adults with cardiovascular risk factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anniina Salmio
- Center for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Antti-Pekka E Rissanen
- Central Finland Health Care District, Jyväskylä, Finland -
- Sports and Exercise Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- HULA - Helsinki Sports and Exercise Medicine Clinic, Foundation for Sports and Exercise Medicine, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jari L O Kurkela
- Center for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Mirva Rottensteiner
- Central Finland Health Care District, Jyväskylä, Finland
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Santtu Seipäjärvi
- Center for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Joona Juurakko
- Center for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Urho M Kujala
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Jari A Laukkanen
- Central Finland Health Care District, Jyväskylä, Finland
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Jan Wikgren
- Center for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
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Mäkinen EE, Lensu S, Wikgren J, Pekkala S, Koch LG, Britton SL, Nokia MS. Intrinsic running capacity associates with hippocampal electrophysiology and long-term potentiation in rats. Neurosci Lett 2024; 823:137665. [PMID: 38301912 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2024.137665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
Good aerobic and metabolic fitness associates with better cognitive performance and brain health. Conversely, poor metabolic health predisposes to neurodegenerative diseases. Our previous findings indicate that rats selectively bred for Low Capacity for Running (LCR) show less synaptic plasticity and more inflammation in the hippocampus and perform worse in tasks requiring flexible cognition than rats bred for High Capacity for Running (HCR). Here we aimed to determine whether hippocampal electrophysiological activity related to learning and memory would be impaired in LCR compared to HCR rats. We also studied whether an exercise intervention could even out the possible differences. We conducted in vivo recordings from the dorsal hippocampus under terminal urethane anesthesia in middle-aged sedentary males and female rats, and in females allowed to access running wheels for 6 weeks. Our results indicate stronger long-term potentiation (LTP) in the CA3-CA1 synapse in HCR than LCR rats, and in female than male rats. Compared to LCR rats, HCR rats had more dentate spikes and more gamma epochs, the occurrence of which also correlated positively with the magnitude of LTP. Voluntary running reduced the differences between female LCR and HCR rats. In conclusion, low innate fitness links to reduced hippocampal function and plasticity which can seems to improve with voluntary aerobic exercise even in middle age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elina E Mäkinen
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland.
| | - Sanna Lensu
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland; Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Jan Wikgren
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Satu Pekkala
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Lauren G Koch
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, USA
| | - Steven L Britton
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA; Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Miriam S Nokia
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
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Ahti PA, Wikgren J. Rapture of the deep: gas narcosis may impair decision-making in scuba divers. Diving Hyperb Med 2023; 53:306-312. [PMID: 38091589 PMCID: PMC10944662 DOI: 10.28920/dhm53.4.306-312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023]
Abstract
Introduction While gas narcosis is familiar to most divers conducting deep (> 30 metres) dives, its effects are often considered minuscule or subtle at 30 metres. However, previous studies have shown that narcosis may affect divers at depths usually considered safe from its influence, but little knowledge exists on the effects of gas narcosis on higher cognitive functions such as decision-making in relatively shallow water at 30 metres. Impaired decision-making could be a significant safety issue for a multitasking diver. Methods We conducted a study exploring the effects of gas narcosis on decision-making in divers breathing compressed air underwater. The divers (n = 22) were evenly divided into 5-metre and 30-metre groups. In the water, we used underwater tablets equipped with the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), a well-known psychological task used to evaluate impairment in decision-making. Results The divers at 30 metres achieved a lower score (mean 1,584.5, standard deviation 436.7) in the IGT than the divers at 5 metres (mean 2,062.5, standard deviation 584.1). Age, body mass index, gender, or the number of previous dives did not affect performance in the IGT. Conclusions Our results suggest that gas narcosis may affect decision-making in scuba divers at 30 metres depth. This supports previous studies showing that gas narcosis is present at relatively shallow depths and shows that it may affect higher cognitive functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pauliina A Ahti
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
- Corresponding author: Dr Pauliina A Ahti, Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Finland, ORCiD: 000-002-6216-9616,
| | - Jan Wikgren
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
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Mäkinen E, Wikgren J, Pekkala S, Koch LG, Britton SL, Nokia MS, Lensu S. Genotype determining aerobic exercise capacity associates with behavioral plasticity in middle-aged rats. Behav Brain Res 2023; 443:114331. [PMID: 36774999 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2023.114331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Revised: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/04/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
Abstract
Good aerobic fitness associates positively with cognitive performance and brain health and conversely, low aerobic fitness predisposes to neurodegenerative diseases. To study how genotype together with exercise, started at older age, affects brain and behavior, we utilized rats that differ in inherited aerobic fitness. Rats bred for Low Capacity for Running (LCR) are shown to display less synaptic plasticity and more inflammation in the hippocampus and perform worse than rats bred for a High Capacity for Running (HCR) in tasks requiring flexible cognition. Here we used middle-aged (∼ 16 months) HCR and LCR rats to study how genotype and sex associate with anxiety and neural information filtering, termed sensory gating. Further, we assessed how inherited aerobic capacity associates with hippocampus-dependent learning, measured with contextual fear conditioning task. In females, we also investigated the effects of voluntary wheel running (5 weeks) on these characteristics. Our results indicate that independent of sex or voluntary running, HCR rats were more anxious in open-field tasks, exhibited lower sensory gating and learned more efficiently in contextual fear conditioning task than LCR rats. Voluntary running did not markedly affect innate behavior but slightly decreased the differences between female LCR and HCR rats in fear learning. In conclusion, inherited fitness seems to determine cognitive and behavioral traits independent of sex. Although the traits proved to be rather resistant to change at adult age, learning was slightly improved following exercise in LCR females, prone to obesity and poor fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elina Mäkinen
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland.
| | - Jan Wikgren
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Satu Pekkala
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Lauren G Koch
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, The University of Toledo, OH, USA
| | - Steven L Britton
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA; Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, USA
| | - Miriam S Nokia
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Sanna Lensu
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland; Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
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Rissanen APE, Rottensteiner M, Kujala UM, Kurkela JLO, Wikgren J, Laukkanen JA. Cardiorespiratory Fitness Estimation Based on Heart Rate and Body Acceleration in Adults With Cardiovascular Risk Factors: Validation Study. JMIR Cardio 2022; 6:e35796. [PMID: 36282560 PMCID: PMC9644248 DOI: 10.2196/35796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Adding CRF to conventional risk factors (eg, smoking, hypertension, impaired glucose metabolism, and dyslipidemia) improves the prediction of an individual’s risk for adverse health outcomes such as those related to cardiovascular disease. Consequently, it is recommended to determine CRF as part of individualized risk prediction. However, CRF is not determined routinely in everyday clinical practice. Wearable technologies provide a potential strategy to estimate CRF on a daily basis, and such technologies, which provide CRF estimates based on heart rate and body acceleration, have been developed. However, the validity of such technologies in estimating individual CRF in clinically relevant populations is poorly known. Objective The objective of this study is to evaluate the validity of a wearable technology, which provides estimated CRF based on heart rate and body acceleration, in working-aged adults with cardiovascular risk factors. Methods In total, 74 adults (age range 35-64 years; n=56, 76% were women; mean BMI 28.7, SD 4.6 kg/m2) with frequent cardiovascular risk factors (eg, n=64, 86% hypertension; n=18, 24% prediabetes; n=14, 19% type 2 diabetes; and n=51, 69% metabolic syndrome) performed a 30-minute self-paced walk on an indoor track and a cardiopulmonary exercise test on a treadmill. CRF, quantified as peak O2 uptake, was both estimated (self-paced walk: a wearable single-lead electrocardiogram device worn to record continuous beat-to-beat R-R intervals and triaxial body acceleration) and measured (cardiopulmonary exercise test: ventilatory gas analysis). The accuracy of the estimated CRF was evaluated against that of the measured CRF. Results Measured CRF averaged 30.6 (SD 6.3; range 20.1-49.6) mL/kg/min. In all participants (74/74, 100%), mean difference between estimated and measured CRF was −0.1 mL/kg/min (P=.90), mean absolute error was 3.1 mL/kg/min (95% CI 2.6-3.7), mean absolute percentage error was 10.4% (95% CI 8.5-12.5), and intraclass correlation coefficient was 0.88 (95% CI 0.80-0.92). Similar accuracy was observed in various subgroups (sexes, age, BMI categories, hypertension, prediabetes, and metabolic syndrome). However, mean absolute error was 4.2 mL/kg/min (95% CI 2.6-6.1) and mean absolute percentage error was 16.5% (95% CI 8.6-24.4) in the subgroup of patients with type 2 diabetes (14/74, 19%). Conclusions The error of the CRF estimate, provided by the wearable technology, was likely below or at least very close to the clinically significant level of 3.5 mL/kg/min in working-aged adults with cardiovascular risk factors, but not in the relatively small subgroup of patients with type 2 diabetes. From a large-scale clinical perspective, the findings suggest that wearable technologies have the potential to estimate individual CRF with acceptable accuracy in clinically relevant populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antti-Pekka E Rissanen
- Central Finland Health Care District, Jyväskylä, Finland
- Department of Sports and Exercise Medicine, Clinicum, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- HULA - Helsinki Sports and Exercise Medicine Clinic, Foundation for Sports and Exercise Medicine, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Mirva Rottensteiner
- Central Finland Health Care District, Jyväskylä, Finland
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Urho M Kujala
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Jari L O Kurkela
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Jan Wikgren
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Jari A Laukkanen
- Central Finland Health Care District, Jyväskylä, Finland
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
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Seipäjärvi S, Tuomola A, Juurakko J, Rottensteiner M, Rissanen APE, Kurkela J, Kujala U, Laukkanen J, Wikgren J. Measuring psychosocial stress with heart rate variability-based methods in different health and age groups. Physiol Meas 2022; 43. [PMID: 35483348 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6579/ac6b7c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Autonomic nervous system function and thereby bodily stress and recovery reactions may be assessed by wearable devices measuring heart rate (HR) and its variability (HRV). So far, the validity of HRV-based stress assessments has been mainly studied in healthy populations. In this study, we determined how psychosocial stress affects physiological and psychological stress responses in both young (18-30 yrs) and middle-aged (45-64 yrs) healthy individuals as well as in patients with arterial hypertension and/or either prior evidence of prediabetes or type 2 diabetes. We also studied how an HRV-based stress index (Relax-Stress Intensity, RSI) relates to perceived stress (PS) and cortisol (CRT) responses during psychosocial stress. APPROACH A total of 197 participants were divided into three groups: 1) healthy young (HY, N=63), 2) healthy middle-aged (HM, N=61) and 3) patients with cardiometabolic risk factors (Pts, N=73, 32-65 yrs). The participants underwent a group version of Trier Social Stress Test (TSST-G). HR, HRV (quantified as root mean square of successive differences of R-R intervals, RMSSD), RSI, PS, and salivary CRT were measured regularly during TSST-G and a subsequent recovery period. MAIN RESULTS All groups showed significant stress reactions during TSST-G as indicated by significant responses of HR, RMSSD, RSI, PS, and salivary CRT. Between-group differences were also observed in all measures. Correlation and regression analyses implied RSI being the strongest predictor of CRT response, while HR was more closely associated with PS. SIGNIFICANCE The HRV-based stress index mirrors responses of CRT, which is an independent marker for physiological stress, around TSST-G. Thus, the HRV-based stress index may be used to quantify physiological responses to psychosocial stress across various health and age groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santtu Seipäjärvi
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Kärki, Mattilanniemi, Jyvaskyla, 40100, FINLAND
| | - Anniina Tuomola
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Kärki, Mattilanniemi, Jyvaskyla, Keski-Suomi, 40100, FINLAND
| | - Joona Juurakko
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Kärki, Mattilanniemi, Jyvaskyla, Keski-Suomi, 40100, FINLAND
| | - Mirva Rottensteiner
- Central Finland Health Care District, Keskussairaalantie 19, Jyvaskyla, Central Finland, 40620, FINLAND
| | - Antti-Pekka E Rissanen
- Central Finland Health Care District, Keskussairaalantie, Jyvaskyla, Central Finland, 40620, FINLAND
| | - Jari Kurkela
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Kärki, Mattilanniemi, Jyvaskyla, Keski-Suomi, 40100, FINLAND
| | - Urho Kujala
- University of Jyväskylä Faculty of Sports and Health Sciences, Rautpohjankatu 8, Jyvaskyla, Keski-Suomi, 40700, FINLAND
| | - Jari Laukkanen
- Central Finland Health Care District, Keskussairaalantie, Jyvaskyla, Central Finland, 40620, FINLAND
| | - Jan Wikgren
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Kärki, Mattilanniemi, Jyvaskyla, Keski-Suomi, 40100, FINLAND
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Wikgren J, Nokia MS, Mäkinen E, Koch LG, Britton SL, Kainulainen H, Lensu S. Rats with elevated genetic risk for metabolic syndrome exhibit cognitive deficiencies when young. Physiol Behav 2021; 236:113417. [PMID: 33838202 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2021.113417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Revised: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a known risk factor for cognitive decline. Using polygenic rat models selectively bred for high and low intrinsic exercise capacity and simultaneously modelling as low and high innate risk factor for MetS respectively, we have previously shown that adult animals with lower exercise capacity/higher MetS risk perform poorly in tasks requiring flexible cognition. However, it is not known whether these deficits in cognition are present already at young age. Also, it is unclear whether the high risk genome is related also to lower-level cognition, such as sensory gating measured as prepulse inhibition. In this study, young and adult (5-8 weeks and ~9 months) rats selectively bred for 36 generations as High-Capacity Runners (HCR) or Low-Capacity Runners (LCR) were tested for behavior in an open field task, modulation of startle reflex, and spatial learning in a T-maze. HCR rats were more active in the open field than LCR rats independent of age. Responses to the startle stimulus habituated to the same extent in LCR compared to HCR rats when young, but as adults, stronger habituation was seen in the HCR animals. The prepulse inhibition of startle response was equally strong in young HCR and LCR animals but the effect was shorter lasting in HCR animals. In T-maze, adult HCR animals unexpectedly showed attenuated learning, but we interpret this finding to stem from differences in motivation rather than learning ability. Overall, in the LCR rats with the risk genome for poor aerobic fitness and MetS, indications of compromised cognitive function are present already at a young age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Wikgren
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland.
| | - Miriam S Nokia
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Elina Mäkinen
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Lauren G Koch
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Center for Hypertension and Personalized Medicine, The University of Toledo College of Medicine & Life Sciences, Toledo, OH, 2801 W. Bancroft, Toledo OH 43606-3390, USA
| | - Steven L Britton
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1500 E Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5048, USA; Department of Molecular & Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, 7744 MS II, 1137 E, Catherine St., Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5622, USA
| | - Heikki Kainulainen
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Sanna Lensu
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland; Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland
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10
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Laasonen M, Lahti-Nuuttila P, Leppämäki S, Tani P, Wikgren J, Harno H, Oksanen-Hennah H, Pothos E, Cleeremans A, Dye MWG, Cousineau D, Hokkanen L. Project DyAdd: Non-linguistic Theories of Dyslexia Predict Intelligence. Front Hum Neurosci 2020; 14:316. [PMID: 32922276 PMCID: PMC7456923 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.00316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Two themes have puzzled the research on developmental and learning disorders for decades. First, some of the risk and protective factors behind developmental challenges are suggested to be shared and some are suggested to be specific for a given condition. Second, language-based learning difficulties like dyslexia are suggested to result from or correlate with non-linguistic aspects of information processing as well. In the current study, we investigated how adults with developmental dyslexia or ADHD as well as healthy controls cluster across various dimensions designed to tap the prominent non-linguistic theories of dyslexia. Participants were 18–55-year-old adults with dyslexia (n = 36), ADHD (n = 22), and controls (n = 35). Non-linguistic theories investigated with experimental designs included temporal processing impairment, abnormal cerebellar functioning, procedural learning difficulties, as well as visual processing and attention deficits. Latent profile analysis (LPA) was used to investigate the emerging groups and patterns of results across these experimental designs. LPA suggested three groups: (1) a large group with average performance in the experimental designs, (2) participants predominantly from the clinical groups but with enhanced conditioning learning, and (3) participants predominantly from the dyslexia group with temporal processing as well as visual processing and attention deficits. Despite the presence of these distinct patterns, participants did not cluster very well based on their original status, nor did the LPA groups differ in their dyslexia or ADHD-related neuropsychological profiles. Remarkably, the LPA groups did differ in their intelligence. These results highlight the continuous and overlapping nature of the observed difficulties and support the multiple deficit model of developmental disorders, which suggests shared risk factors for developmental challenges. It also appears that some of the risk factors suggested by the prominent non-linguistic theories of dyslexia relate to the general level of functioning in tests of intelligence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marja Laasonen
- Department of Psychology and Logopedics, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Otorhinolaryngology and Phoniatrics - Head and Neck Surgery, Helsinki University Hospital and University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Pekka Lahti-Nuuttila
- Department of Psychology and Logopedics, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Otorhinolaryngology and Phoniatrics - Head and Neck Surgery, Helsinki University Hospital and University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Sami Leppämäki
- Department of Psychiatry, Helsinki University Hospital and University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Pekka Tani
- Department of Psychiatry, Helsinki University Hospital and University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jan Wikgren
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Hanna Harno
- Clinical Neurosciences, Department of Neurology, Helsinki University Hospital and University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Henna Oksanen-Hennah
- Pediatric Neuropsychiatric Unit, Department of Child Psychiatry, Helsinki University Hospital and University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Emmanuel Pothos
- Department of Psychology, City University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Axel Cleeremans
- Center for Research in Cognition & Neurosciences, Université libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Matthew W G Dye
- National Technical Institute for the Deaf, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Denis Cousineau
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Laura Hokkanen
- Department of Psychology and Logopedics, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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11
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Kortteenniemi A, Ali-Sisto T, Wikgren J, Lehto S. Transcranial direct current stimulation: Adverse effects and the efficacy of a commonly utilised sham protocol. Eur Psychiatry 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2017.02.392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
IntroductionTranscranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a promising neuromodulation method that has, for example, been used to treat depression. Nevertheless, the adverse effects of tDCS and the validity of the current standard tDCS sham protocols have received limited attention.ObjectivesTo evaluate the extent and types of tDCS adverse effects and to assess the reliability of sham stimulation as a control procedure for tDCS in a double-blind setting.AimsTo compare adverse effects between tDCS and sham stimulation groups, and to determine how well the participants and the experimenter are able to distinguish tDCS from sham stimulation.MethodsA sample of healthy volunteers received a 20-minute session of either tDCS (n = 41; 2 mA) or sham stimulation (n = 41; ramp up 15 s, ramp down 15 s; no current in between). The anode was placed over F3 and cathode over F4. Both the participants and the experimenter reported immediate adverse effects and the perceived likelihood for the participant to receive tDCS. Analyses were conducted using the Mann–Whitney U-test.ResultsThe tDCS group reported more erythema compared with the sham group (P = 0.016, Cohen's D = 0.444). No other significant differences in adverse effects were observed. In the tDCS group, both the participants (P = 0.034, Cohen's D = 0.612) and the experimenter (P = 0.006, Cohen's D = 0.674) reported a higher perceived likelihood of the participant receiving tDCS than in the sham group.ConclusionstDCS has only modest adverse effects. Nevertheless, the current standard sham protocol appears insufficient.Disclosure of interestThe authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.
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12
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Kortteenniemi A, Ortega-Alonso A, Javadi AH, Tolmunen T, Ali-Sisto T, Kotilainen T, Wikgren J, Karhunen L, Velagapudi V, Lehto SM. Anodal tDCS Over the Left Prefrontal Cortex Does Not Cause Clinically Significant Changes in Circulating Metabolites. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11:403. [PMID: 32458831 PMCID: PMC7221177 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), a putative treatment for depression, has been proposed to affect peripheral metabolism. Metabolic products from brain tissue may also cross the blood-brain barrier, reflecting the conditions in the brain. However, there are no previous data regarding the effect of tDCS on circulating metabolites. OBJECTIVE To determine whether five daily sessions of tDCS modulate peripheral metabolites in healthy adult men. METHODS This double-blind, randomized controlled trial involved 79 healthy males (aged 20-40 years) divided into two groups, one receiving tDCS (2 mA) and the other sham stimulated. The anode was placed over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the cathode over the corresponding contralateral area. Venous blood samples were obtained before and after the first stimulation session, and after the fifth stimulation session. Serum levels of 102 metabolites were determined by mass spectrometry. The results were analysed with generalised estimating equations corrected for the family-wise error rate. In addition, we performed power calculations estimating sample sizes necessary for future research. RESULTS TDCS-related variation in serum metabolite levels was extremely small and statistically non-significant. Power calculations indicated that for the observed variation to be deemed significant, samples sizes of up to 11,000 subjects per group would be required, depending on the metabolite of interest. CONCLUSION Our study found that five sessions of tDCS induced no major effects on peripheral metabolites among healthy men. These observations support the view of tDCS as a safe treatment that does not induce significant changes in the measured peripheral metabolites in healthy male subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Kortteenniemi
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Alfredo Ortega-Alonso
- Department of Psychology and Logopedics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Public Health Solutions, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Amir-Homayoun Javadi
- School of Psychology, University of Kent, Canterbury, United Kingdom.,Department of Experimental Psychology, Institute of Behavioural Neuroscience, University College London, London, United Kingdom.,School of Rehabilitation, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Tommi Tolmunen
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland.,Institute of Clinical Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Kuopio University Hospital, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Toni Ali-Sisto
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Tuukka Kotilainen
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Jan Wikgren
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Leila Karhunen
- Institute of Public Health and Clinical Nutrition, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Vidya Velagapudi
- Metabolomics Unit, Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM), University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Soili M Lehto
- Psychiatry, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
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13
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Waselius T, Wikgren J, Penttonen M, Nokia MS. Breathe out and learn: Expiration‐contingent stimulus presentation facilitates associative learning in trace eyeblink conditioning. Psychophysiology 2019; 56:e13387. [DOI: 10.1111/psyp.13387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2018] [Revised: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tomi Waselius
- Department of Psychology University of Jyvaskyla Jyvaskyla Finland
| | - Jan Wikgren
- Department of Psychology University of Jyvaskyla Jyvaskyla Finland
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research University of Jyvaskyla Jyvaskyla Finland
| | - Markku Penttonen
- Department of Psychology University of Jyvaskyla Jyvaskyla Finland
| | - Miriam S. Nokia
- Department of Psychology University of Jyvaskyla Jyvaskyla Finland
- Neuroscience Center Helsinki Institute of Life Science, University of Helsinki Helsinki Finland
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14
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Walker S, Avela J, Wikgren J, Meeusen R, Piitulainen H, Baker SN, Parviainen TM. Aging and Strength Training Influence Knee Extensor Intermuscular Coherence During Low- and High-Force Isometric Contractions. Front Physiol 2019; 9:1933. [PMID: 30728782 PMCID: PMC6351450 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 12/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Aging is associated with reduced maximum force production and force steadiness during low-force tasks, but both can be improved by training. Intermuscular coherence measures coupling between two peripheral surface electromyography (EMG) signals in the frequency domain. It is thought to represent the presence of common input to alpha-motoneurons, but the functional meaning of intermuscular coherence, particularly regarding aging and training, remain unclear. This study investigated knee extensor intermuscular coherence in previously sedentary young (18–30 years) and older (67–73 years) subjects before and after a 14-week strength training intervention. YOUNG and OLDER groups performed maximum unilateral isometric knee extensions [100% maximum voluntary contraction (MVC)], as well as force steadiness tests at 20 and 70% MVC, pre- and post-training. Intermuscular (i.e., EMG-EMG) coherence analyses were performed for all (three) contraction intensities in vastus lateralis and medialis muscles. Pre-training coefficient of force variation (i.e., force steadiness) and MVC (i.e., maximum torque) were similar between groups. Both groups improved MVC through training, but YOUNG improved more than OLDER (42 ± 27 Nm versus 18 ± 16 Nm, P = 0.022). Force steadiness did not change during 20% MVC trials in either group, but YOUNG demonstrated increased coefficient of force variation during 70% MVC trials (1.28 ± 0.46 to 1.57 ± 0.70, P = 0.01). YOUNG demonstrated greater pre-training coherence during 20% and 70% MVC trials, particularly within the 8–14 Hz (e.g., 20%: 0.105 ± 0.119 versus 0.016 ± 0.009, P = 0.001) and 16–30 Hz (20%: 0.063 ± 0.078 versus 0.012 ± 0.007, P = 0.002) bands, but not during 100% MVC trials. Strength training led to increases in intermuscular coherence within the 40–60 Hz band during 70% MVC trials in YOUNG only, while OLDER decreased within the 8–14 Hz band during 100% MVC trials. Age-related differences in intermuscular coherence were observed between young and older individuals, even when neuromuscular performance levels were similar. The functional significance of intermuscular coherence remains unclear, since coherence within different frequency bands did not explain any of the variance in the regression models for maximum strength or force steadiness during 20 and 70% MVC trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Walker
- Neuromuscular Research Center, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Janne Avela
- Neuromuscular Research Center, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Jan Wikgren
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Faculty of Education and Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Romain Meeusen
- Human Physiology Research Group, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Harri Piitulainen
- Neuromuscular Research Center, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland.,Department of Neuroscience and Biomedical Engineering, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
| | - Stuart N Baker
- Institute of Neuroscience, Medical School, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Tiina M Parviainen
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Faculty of Education and Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
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15
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Waselius T, Wikgren J, Halkola H, Penttonen M, Nokia MS. Learning by heart: cardiac cycle reveals an effective time window for learning. J Neurophysiol 2018; 120:830-838. [PMID: 29742028 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00128.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cardiac cycle phase is known to modulate processing of simple sensory information. This effect of the heartbeat on brain function is likely exerted via baroreceptors, the neurons sensitive for changes in blood pressure. From baroreceptors, the signal is conveyed all the way to the forebrain and the medial prefrontal cortex. In the two experiments reported, we examined whether learning, as a more complex form of cognition, can be modulated by the cardiac cycle phase. Human participants ( experiment 1) and rabbits ( experiment 2) were trained in trace eyeblink conditioning while neural activity was recorded. The conditioned stimulus was presented contingently with either the systolic or diastolic phase of the cycle. The tone used as the conditioned stimulus evoked amplified responses in both humans (electroencephalogram from "vertex," Cz) and rabbits (hippocampal CA1 local field potential) when its onset was timed at systole. In humans, the cardiac cycle phase did not affect learning, but rabbits trained at diastole learned significantly better than those trained at a random phase of the cardiac cycle. In summary, our results suggest that neural processing of external stimuli and also learning can be affected by targeting stimuli on the basis of cardiac cycle phase. These findings might be useful in applications aimed at maximizing or minimizing the effects of external stimulation. NEW & NOTEWORTHY It has been shown that rapid changes in bodily states modulate neural processing of external stimulus in brain. In this study, we show that modulation of neural processing of external stimulus and learning about it depends on the phase of the cardiac cycle. This is a novel finding that can be applied to optimize associative learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomi Waselius
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä , Jyväskylä , Finland
| | - Jan Wikgren
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä , Jyväskylä , Finland.,Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, University of Jyväskylä , Jyväskylä , Finland
| | - Hanna Halkola
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä , Jyväskylä , Finland
| | - Markku Penttonen
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä , Jyväskylä , Finland
| | - Miriam S Nokia
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä , Jyväskylä , Finland
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16
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Waselius T, Pöllänen E, Wikgren J, Penttonen M, Nokia MS. Hippocampal theta phase-contingent memory retrieval in delay and trace eyeblink conditioning. Behav Brain Res 2018; 337:264-270. [PMID: 28882692 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Revised: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 09/01/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Hippocampal theta oscillations (3-12Hz) play a prominent role in learning. It has been suggested that encoding and retrieval of memories are supported by different phases of the theta cycle. Our previous study on trace eyeblink conditioning in rabbits suggests that the timing of the conditioned stimulus (CS) in relation to theta phase affects encoding but not retrieval of the memory trace. Here, we directly tested the effects of hippocampal theta phase on memory retrieval in two experiments conducted on adult female New Zealand White rabbits. In Experiment 1, animals were trained in trace eyeblink conditioning followed by extinction, and memory retrieval was tested by presenting the CS at troughs and peaks of the theta cycle during different stages of learning. In Experiment 2, animals were trained in delay conditioning either contingent on a high level of theta or at a random neural state. Conditioning was then followed by extinction conducted either at a random state, contingent on theta trough or contingent on theta peak. Our current results indicate that the phase of theta at CS onset has no effect on the performance of the behavioral learned response at any stage of classical eyeblink conditioning or extinction. In addition, theta-contingent trial presentation does not improve learning during delay eyeblink conditioning. The results are consistent with our earlier findings and suggest that the theta phase alone is not sufficient to affect learning at the behavioral level. It seems that the retrieval of recently acquired memories and consequently performing a learned response is moderated by neural mechanisms other than hippocampal theta.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomi Waselius
- Department of Psychology, P.O. Box 35, 40014, University of Jyvaskyla, Finland; Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, University of Jyvaskyla, Finland.
| | - Eveliina Pöllänen
- Department of Psychology, P.O. Box 35, 40014, University of Jyvaskyla, Finland
| | - Jan Wikgren
- Department of Psychology, P.O. Box 35, 40014, University of Jyvaskyla, Finland; Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, University of Jyvaskyla, Finland
| | - Markku Penttonen
- Department of Psychology, P.O. Box 35, 40014, University of Jyvaskyla, Finland
| | - Miriam S Nokia
- Department of Psychology, P.O. Box 35, 40014, University of Jyvaskyla, Finland
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17
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Kortteenniemi A, Javadi AH, Wikgren J, Lehto SM. Progression of adverse effects over consecutive sessions of transcranial direct current stimulation. Clin Neurophysiol 2017; 128:2397-2399. [PMID: 29096212 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2017.09.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Kortteenniemi
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland.
| | - Amir-Homayoun Javadi
- School of Psychology, Keynes College, University of Kent, Canterbury CT2 7NP, UK
| | - Jan Wikgren
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Soili M Lehto
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland; Department of Psychiatry, Kuopio University Hospital, P.O. Box 100, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland; Department of Psychology and Logopedics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 9, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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18
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Tiihonen M, Brattico E, Maksimainen J, Wikgren J, Saarikallio S. Constituents of Music and Visual-Art Related Pleasure - A Critical Integrative Literature Review. Front Psychol 2017; 8:1218. [PMID: 28775697 PMCID: PMC5517436 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2016] [Accepted: 07/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The present literature review investigated how pleasure induced by music and visual-art has been conceptually understood in empirical research over the past 20 years. After an initial selection of abstracts from seven databases (keywords: pleasure, reward, enjoyment, and hedonic), twenty music and eleven visual-art papers were systematically compared. The following questions were addressed: (1) What is the role of the keyword in the research question? (2) Is pleasure considered a result of variation in the perceiver’s internal or external attributes? (3) What are the most commonly employed methods and main variables in empirical settings? Based on these questions, our critical integrative analysis aimed to identify which themes and processes emerged as key features for conceptualizing art-induced pleasure. The results demonstrated great variance in how pleasure has been approached: In the music studies pleasure was often a clear object of investigation, whereas in the visual-art studies the term was often embedded into the context of an aesthetic experience, or used otherwise in a descriptive, indirect sense. Music studies often targeted different emotions, their intensity or anhedonia. Biographical and background variables and personality traits of the perceiver were often measured. Next to behavioral methods, a common method was brain imaging which often targeted the reward circuitry of the brain in response to music. Visual-art pleasure was also frequently addressed using brain imaging methods, but the research focused on sensory cortices rather than the reward circuit alone. Compared with music research, visual-art research investigated more frequently pleasure in relation to conscious, cognitive processing, where the variations of stimulus features and the changing of viewing modes were regarded as explanatory factors of the derived experience. Despite valence being frequently applied in both domains, we conclude, that in empirical music research pleasure seems to be part of core affect and hedonic tone modulated by stable personality variables, whereas in visual-art research pleasure is a result of the so called conceptual act depending on a chosen strategy to approach art. We encourage an integration of music and visual-art into to a multi-modal framework to promote a more versatile understanding of pleasure in response to aesthetic artifacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianne Tiihonen
- Finnish Centre for Interdisciplinary Music Research, Department of Music, Art and Culture Studies, University of JyväskyläJyväskylä, Finland.,Center for Music in the Brain, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University and The Royal Academy of Music, Aarhus/AalborgAarhus, Denmark
| | - Elvira Brattico
- Center for Music in the Brain, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University and The Royal Academy of Music, Aarhus/AalborgAarhus, Denmark
| | - Johanna Maksimainen
- Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics, Department of MusicFrankfurt, Germany
| | - Jan Wikgren
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Department of Psychology, University of JyväskyläJyväskylä, Finland
| | - Suvi Saarikallio
- Finnish Centre for Interdisciplinary Music Research, Department of Music, Art and Culture Studies, University of JyväskyläJyväskylä, Finland
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19
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Rottensteiner M, Leskinen T, Niskanen E, Aaltonen S, Mutikainen S, Wikgren J, Heikkilä K, Kovanen V, Kainulainen H, Kaprio J, Tarkka IM, Kujala UM. Physical activity, fitness, glucose homeostasis, and brain morphology in twins. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2015; 47:509-18. [PMID: 25003773 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000000437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The main aim of the present study (FITFATTWIN) was to investigate how physical activity level is associated with body composition, glucose homeostasis, and brain morphology in young adult male monozygotic twin pairs discordant for physical activity. METHODS From a population-based twin cohort, we systematically selected 10 young adult male monozygotic twin pairs (age range, 32-36 yr) discordant for leisure time physical activity during the past 3 yr. On the basis of interviews, we calculated a mean sum index for leisure time and commuting activity during the past 3 yr (3-yr LTMET index expressed as MET-hours per day). We conducted extensive measurements on body composition (including fat percentage measured by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry), glucose homeostasis including homeostatic model assessment index and insulin sensitivity index (Matsuda index, calculated from glucose and insulin values from an oral glucose tolerance test), and whole brain magnetic resonance imaging for regional volumetric analyses. RESULTS According to pairwise analysis, the active twins had lower body fat percentage (P = 0.029) and homeostatic model assessment index (P = 0.031) and higher Matsuda index (P = 0.021) compared with their inactive co-twins. Striatal and prefrontal cortex (subgyral and inferior frontal gyrus) brain gray matter volumes were larger in the nondominant hemisphere in active twins compared with those in inactive co-twins, with a statistical threshold of P < 0.001. CONCLUSIONS Among healthy adult male twins in their mid-30s, a greater level of physical activity is associated with improved glucose homeostasis and modulation of striatum and prefrontal cortex gray matter volume, independent of genetic background. The findings may contribute to later reduced risk of type 2 diabetes and mobility limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirva Rottensteiner
- 1Department of Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, FINLAND; 2Department of Applied Physics, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, FINLAND; 3Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, FINLAND; 4Department of Public Health, Hjelt Institute, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, FINLAND; 5Department of Biology of Physical Activity, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, FINLAND; 6Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse Services, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, FINLAND; and 7Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, FINLAND
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20
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Kotilainen T, Lehto SM, Wikgren J. Effect of transcranial direct current stimulation on semantic discrimination eyeblink conditioning. Behav Brain Res 2015; 292:142-6. [PMID: 26099815 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2015.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2015] [Revised: 06/05/2015] [Accepted: 06/11/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a neuromodulation method that has been used to modulate learning. We tested whether anodal tDCS targeted at the left DLPFC could enhance learning in a semantic variant of discrimination eyeblink conditioning, i.e., whether the stimulation would have a specific effect on the discrimination ability, rate of acquisition, amplitude of the conditioned response (CR), or all of these. METHODS Immediately prior to the eyeblink conditioning, the participants received either active stimulation of 1 mA for 10 min or sham stimulation. The anode was placed over F3 and the cathode over the right supraorbital area. The conditioned stimuli (CSs) were common Finnish male and female names that were presented as text. Male names were reinforced with an unconditioned stimulus. RESULTS Stimulation had no effect on the learning rate or discrimination ratio, but the stimulated participants showed steeper CR acquisition in the initial phase of the experiment. Nevertheless, the participants in the stimulation group showed greater eyeblink CRs to the non-reinforced CS. DISCUSSION Contrary to our initial hypothesis, the magnitude and rate of CRs to non-reinforced CS was higher in the active stimulation group than in the sham stimulation group, which may suggest deterioration of discrimination and contingency awareness in the used task. Our observations may suggest a lack of effect on the participants' ability to discriminate between two different types of CS. Furthermore, cathodal modulation of the right prefrontal cortex may explain the change in magnitude and rate of CRs to non-reinforced CS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuukka Kotilainen
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland.
| | - Soili M Lehto
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland; Department of Psychiatry, Kuopio University Hospital, P.O. Box 100, FI-70029 Kuopio, Finland.
| | - Jan Wikgren
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, Jyvaskyla, Finland; Department of Psychology, University of Jyvaskyla, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 Jyvaskyla, Finland.
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Nokia MS, Waselius T, Mikkonen JE, Wikgren J, Penttonen M. Phase matters: responding to and learning about peripheral stimuli depends on hippocampal θ phase at stimulus onset. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 22:307-17. [PMID: 25979993 PMCID: PMC4436652 DOI: 10.1101/lm.038166.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2015] [Accepted: 04/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Hippocampal θ (3-12 Hz) oscillations are implicated in learning and memory, but their functional role remains unclear. We studied the effect of the phase of local θ oscillation on hippocampal responses to a neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) and subsequent learning of classical trace eyeblink conditioning in adult rabbits. High-amplitude, regular hippocampal θ-band responses (that predict good learning) were elicited by the CS when it was timed to commence at the fissure θ trough (Trough group). Regardless, learning in this group was not enhanced compared with a yoked control group, possibly due to a ceiling effect. However, when the CS was consistently presented to the peak of θ (Peak group), hippocampal θ-band responding was less organized and learning was retarded. In well-trained animals, the hippocampal θ phase at CS onset no longer affected performance of the learned response, suggesting a time-limited role for hippocampal processing in learning. To our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate that timing a peripheral stimulus to a specific phase of the hippocampal θ cycle produces robust effects on the synchronization of neural responses and affects learning at the behavioral level. Our results support the notion that the phase of spontaneous hippocampal θ oscillation is a means of regulating the processing of information in the brain to a behaviorally relevant degree.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam S Nokia
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyvaskyla, FI-40014 Jyväskylän, Finland
| | - Tomi Waselius
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyvaskyla, FI-40014 Jyväskylän, Finland
| | - Jarno E Mikkonen
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyvaskyla, FI-40014 Jyväskylän, Finland Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, University of Jyvaskyla, FI-40014 Jyväskylän, Finland
| | - Jan Wikgren
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyvaskyla, FI-40014 Jyväskylän, Finland Centre for Interdisciplinary Brain Research, University of Jyvaskyla, FI-40014 Jyväskylän, Finland
| | - Markku Penttonen
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyvaskyla, FI-40014 Jyväskylän, Finland
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Abstract
Eyeblinks, whether reflexive or voluntary, play an important role in protecting our vision. When viewing pictures, reflexive eyeblinks are known to be modulated by the emotional state induced thereby. More specifically, the hedonic valence (unpleasantness-pleasantness) induced by the picture has been shown to have a linear relationship with the amplitude of a startle blink elicited during picture viewing. This effect has been attributed to congruence between an ongoing state and task demands: an unpleasant emotional state is assumed to bias our attention towards potentially harmful stimuli, such as startle tones. However, recent research suggests that the valence-specific modulation may not be limited to the sensory parts of the reflexive pathway related to startle responses. Here, we examined the effect of emotional picture viewing on voluntary (in response to a written command) eyeblinks in adult humans. Emotional modulation of startle blinks was also evaluated. We found that when viewing unpleasant pictures, the amplitude of reflexive eyeblinks was augmented, but the amplitude of voluntary eyeblinks was unaffected. Nevertheless, the response latencies of voluntary eyeblinks were found to be delayed during the viewing of pleasant and unpleasant relative to neutral pictures. We conclude that these results support the theory that emotional experience augments sensory processing specific to potentially harmful stimuli. Further, the emotional state seems not to exert an effect on voluntarily elicited motor activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suvi Karla
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
- Jyväskylä Centre for Interdisciplinary Research, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Timo Ruusuvirta
- Department of Psychology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Jan Wikgren
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
- Jyväskylä Centre for Interdisciplinary Research, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
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Nokia MS, Wikgren J. Phase-locked hippocampal theta-band responses are related to discriminative eyeblink conditioned responding. Behav Brain Res 2013; 256:575-9. [PMID: 24029698 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2013.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2013] [Revised: 08/16/2013] [Accepted: 09/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Hippocampal electrophysiological oscillatory activity is undoubtedly related to learning and memory. The relative power of spontaneously occurring hippocampal theta (∼4-8 Hz) oscillations predicts how fast and how well an animal will learn: more theta predicts faster acquisition of the conditioned response in eyeblink conditioning in both rats and rabbits. Here, our aim was to study how hippocampal theta-band responses to conditioned stimuli elicited during very-long delay discrimination eyeblink conditioning relate to the accompanying conditioned behavior. We trained adult male New Zealand White rabbits using 1500-ms auditory stimuli as conditioned stimuli and a 100-ms airpuff as an unconditioned stimulus. The reinforced conditioned stimulus overlapped and co-terminated with the unconditioned stimulus whereas the non-reinforced conditioned stimulus was always presented alone. Consistent with previous results, hippocampal theta-band responses to the conditioned stimuli diminished in amplitude across training. Interestingly, hippocampal theta-band responses were most consistently time-locked when a well-trained animal failed to suppress behavioral learned responses to the non-reinforced conditioned stimulus. We suggest that phase-locking of hippocampal theta-band oscillations in response to external stimuli reflects retrieval of the dominant memory trace (adaptive or not) along with initiating the most prominent action scheme related to that memory trace.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam S Nokia
- Department of Psychology, P.O. Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland
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Nokia MS, Mikkonen JE, Penttonen M, Wikgren J. Disrupting neural activity related to awake-state sharp wave-ripple complexes prevents hippocampal learning. Front Behav Neurosci 2012; 6:84. [PMID: 23316148 PMCID: PMC3540934 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2012.00084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2012] [Accepted: 11/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Oscillations in hippocampal local-field potentials (LFPs) reflect the crucial involvement of the hippocampus in memory trace formation: theta (4–8 Hz) oscillations and ripples (~200 Hz) occurring during sharp waves are thought to mediate encoding and consolidation, respectively. During sharp wave-ripple complexes (SPW-Rs), hippocampal cell firing closely follows the pattern that took place during the initial experience, most likely reflecting replay of that event. Disrupting hippocampal ripples using electrical stimulation either during training in awake animals or during sleep after training retards spatial learning. Here, adult rabbits were trained in trace eyeblink conditioning, a hippocampus-dependent associative learning task. A bright light was presented to the animals during the inter-trial interval (ITI), when awake, either during SPW-Rs or irrespective of their neural state. Learning was particularly poor when the light was presented following SPW-Rs. While the light did not disrupt the ripple itself, it elicited a theta-band oscillation, a state that does not usually coincide with SPW-Rs. Thus, it seems that consolidation depends on neuronal activity within and beyond the hippocampus taking place immediately after, but by no means limited to, hippocampal SPW-Rs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam S Nokia
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä Jyväskylä, Finland
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Laasonen M, Kauppinen J, Leppämäki S, Tani P, Harno H, Hokkanen L, Wikgren J. Project DyAdd: classical eyeblink conditioning in adults with dyslexia and ADHD. Exp Brain Res 2012; 223:19-32. [PMID: 22948736 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-012-3237-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2011] [Accepted: 08/16/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
In this study of the project DyAdd (Adult Dyslexia and Attention Deficit Disorder in Finland), classical eyeblink conditioning (EBC) was investigated in both delay and trace paradigms in adults (18-55 years) with dyslexia (n = 37), attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; n = 21), their comorbid combination (n = 8), and healthy controls (n = 35). In addition, the profiles of three participants with a rare autosomal dominant cerebellar disease were assessed (episodic ataxia type 2, EA-2). We found that participants with dyslexia were overall slower learners than controls in eyeblink conditioning. Further, they were the only group that had a reduced number of CRs in mediotemporal-dependent trace paradigm compared to the more cerebellum-dependent delay paradigm. Second, ADHD was found to be related to larger CR amplitude. Third, those with a comorbid condition learned faster and manifested CRs that were not well timed. Fourth, the cerebellar patients showed nearly no conditioning at all. Correlations between EBC and various neuropsychological domains (phonological processing, reading, spelling, arithmetic, executive functions, attention, and fine motor control) over all participants resulted in significant relations only for the delay paradigm: Increased amount of reading errors related with later peak latency and increased amount of self-corrections in fine motor control related with larger response magnitude. Within those who conditioned, relations emerged only for the trace paradigm: better spelling was related to larger response magnitude. These results do not lend support to the cerebellar hypothesis of dyslexia. On the contrary, dyslexia in its pure form seems to be related to a relative dysfunction of a larger hippocampal-cerebellar network. Further, larger responses in the ADHD group are suggested to result from their lowered responding threshold.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marja Laasonen
- Division of Cognitive and Neuropsychology, Institute of Behavioural Sciences, University of Helsinki, Siltavuorenpenger 1, P.O. Box 9, 00014, Helsinki, Finland.
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Lyyra P, Wikgren J, Ruusuvirta T, Astikainen P. Explicit behavioral detection of visual changes develops without their implicit neurophysiological detectability. Front Hum Neurosci 2012; 6:48. [PMID: 22419907 PMCID: PMC3300035 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2011] [Accepted: 02/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Change blindness is a failure of reporting major changes across consecutive images if separated, e.g., by a brief blank interval. Successful change detection across interrupts requires focal attention to the changes. However, findings of implicit detection of visual changes during change blindness have raised the question of whether the implicit mode is necessary for development of the explicit mode. To this end, we recorded the visual mismatch negativity (vMMN) of the event-related potentials (ERPs) of the brain, an index of implicit pre-attentive visual change detection, in adult humans performing an oddball-variant of change blindness flicker task. Images of 500 ms in duration were presented repeatedly in continuous sequences, alternating with a blank interval (either 100 ms or 500 ms in duration throughout a stimulus sequence). Occasionally (P = 0.2), a change (referring to color changes, omissions, or additions of objects or their parts in the image) was present. The participants attempted to explicitly (via voluntary button press) detect the occasional change. With both interval durations, it took 10-15 change presentations in average for the participants to eventually detect the changes explicitly in a sequence, the 500 ms interval only requiring a slightly longer exposure to the series than the 100 ms one. Nevertheless, prior to this point of explicit detectability, the implicit detection of the changes vMMN could only be observed with the 100 ms intervals. These findings of explicit change detection developing with and without implicit change detection may suggest that the two modes of change detection recruit independent neural mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pessi Lyyra
- Department of Psychology, University of JyväskyläJyväskylä, Finland
| | - Jan Wikgren
- Department of Psychology, University of JyväskyläJyväskylä, Finland
| | - Timo Ruusuvirta
- Turku Institute for Advanced Studies, Department of Psychology, University of TurkuTurku, Finland
| | - Piia Astikainen
- Department of Psychology, University of JyväskyläJyväskylä, Finland
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Wikgren J, Mertikas GG, Raussi P, Tirkkonen R, Äyräväinen L, Pelto-Huikko M, Koch LG, Britton SL, Kainulainen H. Selective breeding for endurance running capacity affects cognitive but not motor learning in rats. Physiol Behav 2012; 106:95-100. [PMID: 22285210 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2012.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2011] [Revised: 12/09/2011] [Accepted: 01/16/2012] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The ability to utilize oxygen has been shown to affect a wide variety of physiological factors often considered beneficial for survival. As the ability to learn can be seen as one of the core factors of survival in mammals, we studied whether selective breeding for endurance running, an indication of aerobic capacity, also has an effect on learning. Rats selectively bred over 23 generations for their ability to perform forced treadmill running were trained in an appetitively motivated discrimination-reversal classical conditioning task, an alternating T-maze task followed by a rule change (from a shift-win to stay-win rule) and motor learning task. In the discrimination-reversal and T-maze tasks, the high-capacity runner (HCR) rats outperformed the low-capacity runner (LCR) rats, most notably in the phases requiring flexible cognition. In the Rotarod (motor-learning) task, the HCR animals were overall more agile but learned at a similar rate with the LCR group as a function of training. We conclude that the intrinsic ability to utilize oxygen is associated especially with tasks requiring plasticity of the brain structures implicated in flexible cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Wikgren
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Finland.
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Lavond DG, Wikgren J, Nokia MS. Inside the Thompson laboratory during the "cerebellar years" and the continuing cerebellar story. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2010; 95:114-7. [PMID: 21073973 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2010.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2010] [Revised: 09/20/2010] [Accepted: 11/04/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This paper is based on the talk by one of the authors (DL) given at the symposium for the retirement of RF Thompson (RF Thompson: A bridge between 20th and 21st century neuroscience). We first make some informal observations of the historical times and research conditions in the Thompson laboratory when the cerebellum was found to play a critical role in eye lid classical conditioning, the "cerebellar years". These conditions influenced our collaborative international program on the phenomenon known as "transfer of training" or "savings". Our research shows that the appearance of "savings" is an artifact of the order of testing, and depends upon the functioning of the contralateral interpositus nucleus (IPN) in a way that is complementary to the role of the IPN in normal eyelid classical conditioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- D G Lavond
- Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, United States.
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Ruusuvirta T, Astikainen P, Wikgren J, Nokia M. Hippocampus responds to auditory change in rabbits. Neuroscience 2010; 170:232-7. [PMID: 20600633 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.06.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2010] [Revised: 06/22/2010] [Accepted: 06/24/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Any change or novelty in the auditory environment is potentially important for survival. The cortex has been implicated in the detection of auditory change whereas the hippocampus has been associated with the detection of auditory novelty. Local field potentials (LFPs) were recorded from the CA1 area of the hippocampus in waking rabbits. In the oddball condition, a rare tone of one frequency (deviant) randomly replaced a repeated tone of another frequency (standard). In the equal-probability condition, the standard was replaced by a set of tones of nine different frequencies in order to remove the repetitive auditory background of the deviant (now labelled as control-deviant) while preserving its temporal probability. In the oddball condition, evoked potentials at 36-80 ms post-stimulus were found to have greater amplitude towards negative polarity for the deviant relative to the standard. No significant differences in response amplitudes were observed between the control-deviant and the standard. These findings suggest that the hippocampus plays a role in auditory change detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Ruusuvirta
- Turku Institute for Advanced Studies, Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Behavioural Sciences and Philosophy, Assistentinkatu 7, FIN-20014 University of Turku, Turku, Finland.
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Nokia MS, Wikgren J. Hippocampal theta activity is selectively associated with contingency detection but not discrimination in rabbit discrimination-reversal eyeblink conditioning. Hippocampus 2010; 20:457-60. [PMID: 19693781 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.20696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The relative power of the hippocampal theta-band ( approximately 6 Hz) activity (theta ratio) is thought to reflect a distinct neural state and has been shown to affect learning rate in classical eyeblink conditioning in rabbits. We sought to determine if the theta ratio is mostly related to the detection of the contingency between the stimuli used in conditioning or also to the learning of more complex inhibitory associations when a highly demanding delay discrimination-reversal eyeblink conditioning paradigm is used. A high hippocampal theta ratio was not only associated with a fast increase in conditioned responding in general but also correlated with slow emergence of discriminative responding due to sustained responding to the conditioned stimulus not paired with an unconditioned stimulus. The results indicate that the neural state reflected by the hippocampal theta ratio is specifically linked to forming associations between stimuli rather than to the learning of inhibitory associations needed for successful discrimination. This is in line with the view that the hippocampus is responsible for contingency detection in the early phase of learning in eyeblink conditioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam S Nokia
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland.
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Lyyra P, Wikgren J, Astikainen P. Event-related potentials reveal rapid registration of features of infrequent changes during change blindness. Behav Brain Funct 2010; 6:12. [PMID: 20181126 PMCID: PMC2829480 DOI: 10.1186/1744-9081-6-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2009] [Accepted: 02/09/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Change blindness refers to a failure to detect changes between consecutively presented images separated by, for example, a brief blank screen. As an explanation of change blindness, it has been suggested that our representations of the environment are sparse outside focal attention and even that changed features may not be represented at all. In order to find electrophysiological evidence of neural representations of changed features during change blindness, we recorded event-related potentials (ERPs) in adults in an oddball variant of the change blindness flicker paradigm. Methods ERPs were recorded when subjects performed a change detection task in which the modified images were infrequently interspersed (p = .2) among the frequently (p = .8) presented unmodified images. Responses to modified and unmodified images were compared in the time window of 60-100 ms after stimulus onset. Results ERPs to infrequent modified images were found to differ in amplitude from those to frequent unmodified images at the midline electrodes (Fz, Pz, Cz and Oz) at the latency of 60-100 ms even when subjects were unaware of changes (change blindness). Conclusions The results suggest that the brain registers changes very rapidly, and that changed features in images are neurally represented even without participants' ability to report them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pessi Lyyra
- Department of Psychology, PO Box 35, FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland.
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Wikgren J, Nokia MS, Penttonen M. Hippocampo-cerebellar theta band phase synchrony in rabbits. Neuroscience 2009; 165:1538-45. [PMID: 19945512 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.11.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2009] [Revised: 11/16/2009] [Accepted: 11/18/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Hippocampal functioning, in the form of theta band oscillation, has been shown to modulate and predict cerebellar learning of which rabbit eyeblink conditioning is perhaps the most well-known example. The contribution of hippocampal neural activity to cerebellar learning is only possible if there is a functional connection between the two structures. Here, in the context of trace eyeblink conditioning, we show (1) that, in addition to the hippocampus, prominent theta oscillation also occurs in the cerebellum, and (2) that cerebellar theta oscillation is synchronized with that in the hippocampus. Further, the degree of phase synchrony (PS) increased both as a response to the conditioning stimuli and as a function of the relative power of hippocampal theta oscillation. However, the degree of PS did not change as a function of either training or learning nor did it predict learning rate as the hippocampal theta ratio did. Nevertheless, theta band synchronization might reflect the formation of transient neural assemblies between the hippocampus and the cerebellum. These findings help us understand how hippocampal function can affect eyeblink conditioning, during which the critical plasticity occurs in the cerebellum. Future studies should examine cerebellar unit activity in relation to hippocampal theta oscillations in order to discover the detailed mechanisms of theta-paced neural activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Wikgren
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland.
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Abstract
The authors examined the relationship between hippocampal theta activity and trace eyeblink conditioning. Hippocampal electrophysiological local field potentials were recorded before, during, and after conditioning or explicitly unpaired training sessions in adult male New Zealand White rabbits. As expected, a high relative power of theta activity (theta ratio) in the hippocampus predicted faster acquisition of the conditioned response during trace conditioning but, contrary to previous results obtained using the delay paradigm, only in the initial stage of learning. The presentation of the conditioned stimulus overall elicited an increase in the hippocampal theta ratio. The theta ratio decreased in the unpaired group as a function of training, remained high throughout conditioning in the fast learners, and rapidly increased in the slow learners initially showing a low theta ratio. Our results indicate a reciprocal connection between the hippocampal oscillatory activity and associative learning. The hippocampal theta ratio seems to reflect changes and differences in the subjects' alertness and responsiveness to external stimuli, which affect the rate of learning and are, in turn, affected by both conditioning and unpaired training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam S Nokia
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland.
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Karla S, Ruusuvirta T, Wikgren J. Affective modulation of conditioned eyeblinks. Biol Psychol 2009; 82:192-194. [PMID: 19580843 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2009.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2009] [Revised: 06/28/2009] [Accepted: 06/28/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Affective states are known to modulate reflexive actions. Aversive states potentiate defensive reflexes while appetitive states diminish them. The present study examined whether the same holds for associatively learned defensive eyeblinks to mild, initially neutral auditory stimuli. First, delay eyeblink conditioning was applied to human participants while they viewed emotionally neutral images. Next, the conditioned eyeblink responses (CRs) of the participants were tested during the viewing of unpleasant, neutral, or pleasant images. The most vigorous CRs were found during the unpleasant images, although they did not differ between neutral and pleasant images. The results add to the motivational priming hypothesis by demonstrating its partial applicability to associatively learned defensive behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suvi Karla
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, FIN-40014 Jyväskylä, Finland
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Abstract
The human brain can automatically detect changes even in repeated melodic contours of spectrally varying sounds. However, it is unclear whether this ability is specific to humans. We recorded event-related potentials (ERPs) in urethane-anaesthetized Wistar rats presented with rare pairs of tones ('deviants') interspersed with frequently repeated ones ('standards'). The frequency of the tones varied nonsystematically across their pairs so that deviants stood out from standards only in the melodic ordering (ascending or descending) of the tones of a pair. We found that the absolute amplitude of the ERP was significantly higher to deviants than standards between 106 and 136 ms from the onset of the deviance, suggesting that the ability to automatically detect changes in higher-order invariant attributes that emerge from consecutive sounds is not specific to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timo Ruusuvirta
- Cognitive Brain Research Unit, Department of Psychology, PO Box 9, 00014 University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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Abstract
It is unclear whether the ability of the brain to discriminate rare from frequently repeated combinations of sound features is limited to the normal sleep/wake cycle. We recorded epidural auditory event-related potentials in urethane-anesthetized rats presented with rare tones ('deviants') interspersed with frequently repeated ones ('standards'). Deviants differed from standards either in frequency alone or in frequency combined with intensity. In both cases, deviants elicited event-related potentials exceeding in amplitude event-related potentials to standards between 76 and 108 ms from the stimulus onset, suggesting the independence of the underlying integrative and memory-based change detection mechanisms of the brain from the normal sleep/wake cycle. The relations of these event-related potentials to mismatch negativity and N1 in humans are addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piia Astikainen
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyvaäskylaä, Jyvaäskylaä, Finland.
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Ruusuvirta T, Wikgren J, Astikainen P. Proactive interference in a two-tone pitch-comparison task without additional interfering tones. Psychol Res 2006; 72:74-8. [PMID: 17024429 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-006-0094-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2005] [Accepted: 08/15/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Two-tone pitch-comparison tasks typically comprise several successive pairs of successive tones separated by silent intervals. The serial occurrence of such pairs has been associated with degraded task performance, but the nature of this association is not fully understood. Human adult participants were presented with successive pairs of successive tones. The latter, to-be-compared tone of a pair could differ from the former, to-be-remembered tone of 1046.5 Hz by no more than +/-15 Hz (25 cents). The direction of this difference was easier to identify when it was opposite to that of the preceding pair than when being the same. Merely responding accordingly (irrespectively of whether the response was correct or not) was found not to account for this finding. Our study demonstrates proactive interference in a two-tone pitch comparison task as the difficulty to remember when the first tone of the present pair occurred relative to the last tone of the immediately preceding pair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timo Ruusuvirta
- Cognitive Brain Research Unit, Department of Psychology, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 13, 00014, Helsinki, Finland.
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Wikgren J, Lavond DG, Ruusuvirta T, Korhonen T. Cooling of the cerebellar interpositus nucleus abolishes somatosensory cortical learning-related activity in eyeblink conditioned rabbits. Behav Brain Res 2006; 170:94-8. [PMID: 16580077 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2006.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2005] [Revised: 02/03/2006] [Accepted: 02/09/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Nictitating membrane movement and multiple-unit activity in the somatosensory cortex were recorded from rabbits during paired (N=6) and unpaired (N=5) presentations of a tone conditioned stimulus (CS) and an airpuff unconditioned stimulus (US). A behavioural conditioned response (CR) to the CS and an accompanying neural response in the somatosensory cortex developed only in the paired group. Inactivation of the cerebellar interpositus nucleus abolished both the acquired CR and the accompanying neural response. However, the CS facilitated both behavioural and neural responses to the US during the inactivation. Thus, the absence of the CR could not be accounted for by the general inability of the CS to alter the behaviour constituting the CR or the activity of the somatosensory cortex. These findings suggest that the efferent copy of the signal related to the eyeblink CR is projected from the cerebellum to the cerebral cortical areas of the US modality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Wikgren
- Department of Pyschology, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, 40014 Jyväskylä, Finland.
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Astikainen P, Ruusuvirta T, Wikgren J, Korhonen T. The human brain processes visual changes that are not cued by attended auditory stimulation. Neurosci Lett 2004; 368:231-4. [PMID: 15351455 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2004.07.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2004] [Revised: 06/11/2004] [Accepted: 07/14/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Event-related potentials (ERPs) to visual stimuli were recorded from the scalp of eight adult humans performing a task in which they counted vowels from a heard story. In the oddball condition, a repeated (standard) light bar of 50 ms in duration was rarely (P = 0.1) replaced by a (deviant) one differing in orientation from the standard. In the control condition, standards were simply omitted from the series and only (alone-) deviants retained. In both conditions, visual stimuli were asynchronous with auditory-task-relevant stimuli. ERPs to deviants significantly differed in amplitude from those to standards in the midline electrodes centrally, parietally and occipitally at 160-200 ms from stimulus onset. Occipitally, such a difference was absent between ERPs to alone-deviants and those to standards. The occipital differential ERPs to deviants, which thus could be found only when standards were present in the series, are discussed in the context of the mismatch negativity (MMN).
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Affiliation(s)
- Piia Astikainen
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, 40014 Jyväskylä, Finland.
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Wikgren J, Ruusuvirta T, Korhonen T. Activity in the rabbit somatosensory cortex reflects the active procedural memory trace of a classically conditioned eyeblink response. Neurosci Lett 2003; 341:119-22. [PMID: 12686380 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3940(03)00180-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Behavioral responses and neural responses in the somatosensory cortex were recorded in nine rabbits during the unpaired and paired treatments of classical eyeblink conditioning with a tone conditioned stimulus (CS) and an airpuff unconditioned stimulus. During the unpaired treatment, neither the behavioral nor neural responses to the CS were observed. During the paired treatment, behavioral conditioned response (CR), accompanied by neural activity, was developed. In well-trained animals occasional failures to elicit the CR were accompanied by an absence of neural responses. Nevertheless, the CS modified the behavioral unconditioned response in paired trials, implying that the CR-failures could not reflect the inability of the CS to modulate the pathways triggering the behavior constituting the CR. Thus, a close link between CR elicitation and somatosensory cortical neural response was established. Our finding suggests that this neural activity to a tone CS during classical eyeblink conditioning reflects an efferent copy of the procedural memory trace.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Wikgren
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, 40014, Jyväskylä, Finland.
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Wikgren J, Ruusuvirta T, Korhonen T. Reflex facilitation during eyeblink conditioning and subsequent interpositus nucleus inactivation in the rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Behav Neurosci 2003. [PMID: 12492303 DOI: 10.1037//0735-7044.116.6.1052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In eyeblink conditioning in the rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), not only is a conditioned response (CR) acquired, but also the original reflex is modified as a function of training. In Experiment 1, by comparing unconditioned responses in unpaired and paired groups, 3 types of reflex facilitation were distinguished. One type was linked to exposure to the unconditioned stimuli (USs) and/or experimental setting. The 2nd type was related to the formation of the memory trace for conditioned eyeblink. The 3rd type was linked to the conditioned stimulus immediately preceding the US in the paired group. In Experiment 2, reversible inactivation of the interpositus nucleus (IPN) abolished the CR and reduced the CR-related reflex facilitation, indicating that the latter depends on the plasticity of the IPN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Wikgren
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Finland.
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Wikgren J, Ruusuvirta T, Korhonen T. Reflex facilitation during eyeblink conditioning and subsequent interpositus nucleus inactivation in the rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Behav Neurosci 2002; 116:1052-8. [PMID: 12492303 DOI: 10.1037/0735-7044.116.6.1052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In eyeblink conditioning in the rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), not only is a conditioned response (CR) acquired, but also the original reflex is modified as a function of training. In Experiment 1, by comparing unconditioned responses in unpaired and paired groups, 3 types of reflex facilitation were distinguished. One type was linked to exposure to the unconditioned stimuli (USs) and/or experimental setting. The 2nd type was related to the formation of the memory trace for conditioned eyeblink. The 3rd type was linked to the conditioned stimulus immediately preceding the US in the paired group. In Experiment 2, reversible inactivation of the interpositus nucleus (IPN) abolished the CR and reduced the CR-related reflex facilitation, indicating that the latter depends on the plasticity of the IPN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Wikgren
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Finland.
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Wikgren J, Korhonen T. Interpositus nucleus inactivation reduces unconditioned response amplitude after paired but not explicitly unpaired treatment in rabbit eyeblink conditioning. Neurosci Lett 2001; 308:181-4. [PMID: 11479018 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3940(01)02000-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The amplitude of unconditioned responses (URs) in unconditioned stimulus (US) alone presentations were measured in six rabbits during explicitly unpaired and classical conditioning treatments. After both phases of the experiment, the interpositus nucleus (IPN) was reversibly inactivated by a cold probe. URs after unpaired treatment were unaffected by inactivation but after acquisition of a robust level of conditioned responses (CRs), URs in US-alone test trials were reduced in amplitude compared with URs immediately before and after inactivation. The results suggest that the IPN has a role in CR-related reflex modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Wikgren
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35, 40351, Jyväskylä, Finland.
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Wikgren J, Korhonen T. Inactivation of the interpositus nucleus blocks the conditioned response acquired by a somatosensory conditioned stimulus in rabbit eyeblink conditioning. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2001; 25:1161-8. [PMID: 11444683 DOI: 10.1016/s0278-5846(01)00165-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
1. Earlier studies suggest that the memory trace for the conditioned eyeblink reflex is formed and maintained in the interpositus nucleus (IPN) in the deep cerebellar nuclei when either an auditory or visual stimulus is used as a conditioned stimulus (CS). 2. In the present study, the eyeblink reflex of the rabbit was conditioned to a somatosensory CS (an airpuff onto the back). 3. In well-trained animals, the IPN was reversibly inactivated by local cooling and the existence of the learned responses to the CS was then tested. 4. The reversible IPN inactivation blocked the memory trace the somatosensory CS. The finding further supports the view that IPN-mediated memory trace formation is not dependent on the modality of the CS.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Wikgren
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
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Arikoski J, Korhonen T, Penttonen M, Ruusuvirta T, Wikgren J. Effects of rewarding electrical stimulation of lateral hypothalamus on classical conditioning of the nictitating membrane response. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1997; 21:613-31. [PMID: 9194144 DOI: 10.1016/s0278-5846(97)00036-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
1. Adult New Zealand albino rabbits were prepared with chronic hypothalamic stimulating electrodes and hippocampal recording electrodes. 2. Rabbits were restrained and classically conditioned by a tone CS and an airpuff US either followed or preceded by a hypothalamic stimulation (HS). Control rabbits were conditioned without the HS. 3. It was found that HS following the CS facilitated both behavioral and hippocampal responses, while HS preceding the CS inhibited them. 4. Enhanced hippocampal learning-related unit firing to the CS may represent an early indication of conditioning before the behavioral activity produces any observable change.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Arikoski
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
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