Domain-Specific Greed

Greed, the insatiable and excessive desire and striving for more even at the expense of others, may be directed toward various goods. In this article, we propose that greed may be conceptualized as a domain-specific construct. Based on a literature review and an expert survey, we identified 10 domains of greed which we operationalized with the DOmain-SPEcific Greed (DOSPEG) questionnaire. In Study 1 (N = 725), we found support for the proposed structure and convergent validity with related constructs. Bifactor-(S-1) models revealed that generic greed is differentially related to the greed domains, indicating that generic greed primarily captures a striving for money and material things. In the second study (N = 591), we found that greed domains had incremental validity beyond generic greed with regard to corresponding criteria assessed via self- and other-reports. We conclude that greed can be conceptualized as a domain-specific construct and propose an onion model reflecting this structure.

Exploration of the influence of the quantification method and reference scheme on feedback-related negativity and standardized measurement error of feedback-related negativity amplitudes in a trust game

Various approaches have been taken over the years to quantify event-related potential (ERP) responses and these approaches may vary in their utility connecting empirical research and scientific claims. In this work we compared different quantification methods as well as the influence of three reference methods (linked mastoids, average reference, and current source density) on the resulting ERP amplitude. We use the experimental effects and effect sizes (Cohen's d) to evaluate the different methodological variants and we calculate intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC). In addition, the bootstrapped standard error of the means (SME, Luck et al., 2021), which was recently suggested as a quality criterion for ERP research, is used for this purpose. Our example for an ERP is the feedback-related negativity (FRN) to feedback about trustee behavior in a trust game with participants in the trustor position. We found that the quantification methods concerning the FRN influenced the absolute value of condition effects in the experimental paradigm. Yet, the patterns of effects were detected by all chosen methods, except for the 'individual difference wave'-based peak window approach. In addition, our findings stress the importance of checking the reference electrodes concerning effects of the experimental conditions. Furthermore, interactions of topographical distribution and reference choice should be considered. Finally, we were able to show that the SME is lower for more datapoints that are given in the quantification period of the FRN, and higher for more negative FRN amplitudes. These biases may lead to divergence of SME and effect size detection. Therefore, if the SME was used to compare different processing choices one should consider controlling for these important aspects of the data and possibly include other quality criteria like effect sizes.

Social influence and external feedback control in humans

This article aims to unravel the dynamics of social influence by examining the processes that occur when one person is the target of another's influence. We hypothesized that these processes are part of a feedback loop system in an individual. This loop involves the situation (input), a goal state (reference), a comparator, a selection mechanism, a feedback predictor, and an action (output). Each element can become the target of social influence, and different types of social influence can be classified and explained by how these elements are targeted. For instance, attempting to persuade another person with strong arguments targets the goal state of the affected individual, while obedience targets the selection mechanism, and violence targets the action. In summary, this article aims to categorize, order, and explain phenomena in social influence research using a feedback loop framework focusing on the influenced individual.

The Relation of Big Five Personality Traits on Academic Performance, Well-Being and Home Study Satisfaction in Corona Times

INTRODUCTION

As a result of the protective measures taken to contain the COVID-19 pandemic, German students experienced home study in the spring of 2020. The present study addressed the relation between coping with the home study situation and personality.

METHODS

The interrelations of the Big Five factors with students' well-being, study satisfaction and academic performance were examined in 287 German online participants.

RESULTS

The results showed significant positive correlations of positive affect and conscientiousness, as well as of better academic performance and academic satisfaction. For extraversion, a positive supporting effect on the affective level emerged, although previous studies suggested negative influences of extraversion on affect in home study settings in other phases of the pandemic. Furthermore, in contrast, neuroticism showed a negative relation to study satisfaction and mood in home study.

CONCLUSION

In summary, the personalities of students should be considered in order to provide protective measures and avoid negative coping effects.

Inhibition of midfrontal theta with transcranial ultrasound explains greater approach versus withdrawal behavior in humans

Recent reviews highlighted low-intensity transcranial focused ultrasound (TUS) as a promising new tool for non-invasive neuromodulation in basic and applied sciences. Our preregistered double-blind within-subjects study (N = 152) utilized TUS targeting the right prefrontal cortex, which, in earlier work, was found to positively enhance self-reported global mood, decrease negative states of self-reported emotional conflict (anxiety/worrying), and modulate related midfrontal functional magnetic resonance imaging activity in affect regulation brain networks. To further explore TUS effects on objective physiological and behavioral variables, we used a virtual T-maze task that has been established in prior studies to measure motivational conflicts regarding whether participants execute approach versus withdrawal behavior (with free-choice responses via continuous joystick movements) while allowing to record related electroencephalographic data such as midfrontal theta activity (MFT). MFT, a reliable marker of conflict representation on a neuronal level, was of particular interest to us since it has repeatedly been shown to explain related behavior, with relatively low MFT typically preceding approach-like risky behavior and relatively high MFT typically preceding withdrawal-like risk aversion. Our central hypothesis is that TUS decreases MFT in T-maze conflict situations and thereby increases approach and reduces withdrawal. Results indicate that TUS led to significant MFT decreases, which significantly explained increases in approach behavior and decreases in withdrawal behavior. This study expands TUS evidence on a physiological and behavioral level with a large sample size of human subjects, suggesting the promise of further research based on this distinct TUS-MFT-behavior link to influence conflict monitoring and its behavioral consequences. Ultimately, this can serve as a foundation for future clinical work to establish TUS interventions for emotional and motivational mental health.

Investigating the role of the right inferior frontal gyrus in control perception: A double-blind cross-over study using ultrasonic neuromodulation

Being able to control inner and environmental states is a basic need of living creatures. The perception of such control is based on the perceived ratio of outcome probabilities given the presence and the absence of agentic behavior. If an organism believes that options exist to change the probability of a given outcome, control perception (CP) may emerge. Nonetheless, regarding this model, not much is known about how the brain processes CP from this information. This study uses low-intensity transcranial focused ultrasound neuromodulation in a randomized-controlled double blind cross-over design to investigate the impact of the right inferior frontal gyrus of the lateral prefrontal cortex on this process. 39 healthy participants visited the laboratory twice (once in a sham, once in a neuromodulation condition) and rated their control perception regarding a classical control illusion task. EEG alpha and theta power density were analyzed in a hierarchical single trial-based mixed modeling approach. Results indicate that the litFUS neuromodulation changed the processing of stimulus probability without changing CP Furthermore, neuromodulation of the right lPFC was found to modulate mid-frontal theta by altering its relationship with self-reported effort and worrying. While these data indicate lateral prefrontal sensitivity to stimulus probability, no evidence emerged for the dependency of CP on this processing.

Can monetary incentives overturn fairness-based decisions?

Fairness norms and resulting behaviours are an important prerequisite for cooperation in human societies. At the same time, financial incentives are commonly used to motivate social behaviours, yet it remains unclear how financial incentives affect fairness-based behaviours. Combining a decision paradigm from behavioural economics with hierarchical drift-diffusion modelling, we investigated the effect of different financial incentives on two types of fairness-based decisions in four experimental groups. In two groups, participants divided points between themselves and a disadvantaged person, inciting fairness-based compensation behaviour, in two other groups they divided points between themselves and a fairness violator, inciting fairness-based punishment behaviour. In addition, each group received financial incentives that were either aligned or in conflict with the respective fairness-based behaviour. This design allowed us to directly investigate how different incentives shape the cognitive mechanism of fairness-based decisions and whether these effects are comparable across different fairness domains (fairness-based punishment versus fairness-based compensation). Results showed that offering conflicting incentives diminished fairness-congruent decision behaviour and rendered the fairness-congruent decision process less efficient. These findings demonstrate that financial incentives can undermine fairness-based behaviour, and thus are relevant for the development of incentive schemes aimed at fostering cooperative behaviour.

Transcranial focused ultrasound modulates the emergence of learned helplessness via midline theta modification

BACKGROUND

Helplessness and hopelessness are states closely related to depressive disorders. They ensue following the anticipated absence of valid behavioral options to alleviate an aversive state. One neural structure involved in the detection of such options, is the cingulate cortex (CC), which conveys the evaluation of behavior against the value of its outcome. Accordingly, CC-related EEG measures are thought to correlate to feedback evaluation but also to anxious and conflict-related states, signaling the need for further adaptation to current requirements. Against this background, this study investigated the role of CC functioning in the emergence and prevention of helpless/hopeless states by applying low-intensity transcranial focused ultrasound (litFUS) neuromodulation prior to a learned helplessness task.

METHOD

In a randomized controlled double blind experimental setup with 55 participants, litFUS was used to inhibit the right lateral prefrontal cortex (lPFC), a region closely connected to CC modulation. Participants were instructed to play 8 games of chess against a computer that was unbeatable to them, while an EEG was recorded. Theta oscillation in midline electrodes, playing performance and self-rate measures on cognitive, affective and physiological parameters were assessed.

RESULTS

The results show a considerable influence of litFUS neuromodulation of the lPFC on midline theta activity (Fz and Pz electrode position) which in turn correlated to several psychological variables including self-report data on emotion, cognition, and arousal as well as behavioral measures (playing performance).

LIMITATIONS

Due to the small sample size and sample characteristics, results cannot be generalized to the field of clinical application. A replication of results in larger samples and in context of other sonication parameters is needed to increase the robustness of results and to maximize the efficacy of litFUS application.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that the development of learned helplessness/hopelessness could be positively influenced in its course by litFUS neuromodulation of the right lPFC. In line with previous results, especially the posterior midline electrode Pz seems to be an interesting target for further research in this field as theta activity at this electrode is correlated to control perception and motivated behavior. To our knowledge, this is the first study to use neuromodulation to monitor and manipulate the development of helplessness in the laboratory.

Patient-reported outcomes provide evidence for increased depressive symptoms and increased mental impairment in giant cell arteritis

Objectives

The spectrum of giant cell arteritis (GCA) and polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR) represents highly inflammatory rheumatic diseases. Patients mostly report severe physical impairment. Possible consequences for mental health have been scarcely studied. The aim of this study was to investigate psychological well-being in the context of GCA and PMR.

Methods

Cross-sectional study with N = 100 patients with GCA and/or PMR (GCA-PMR). Patient-reported outcomes (PROs) were measured using the Short Form 36 Version 2 (SF-36v2) and visual analog scale (VAS) assessment. Moreover, the Patient Health Questionnaire 9 (PHQ-9) was used in 35 of 100 patients to detect depression. To compare PROs with physician assessment, VAS was also rated from physician perspective. To assess a possible association with inflammation itself, serological parameters of inflammation (C-reactive protein [CRP], erythrocyte sedimentation rate [ESR]) were included.

Results

In all scales of the SF-36v2 except General Health (GH) and in the physical and mental sum score (PCS, MCS), a significant impairment compared to the German reference collective was evident (MCS: d = 0.533, p < 0.001). In the PHQ-9 categorization, 14 of the 35 (40%) showed evidence of major depression disorder. VAS Patient correlated significantly with PHQ-9 and SF-36 in all categories, while VAS Physician showed only correlations to physical categories and not in the mental dimensions. Regarding inflammatory parameters, linear regression showed CRP to be a complementary significant positive predictor of mental health subscale score, independent of pain.

Conclusion

PRO show a relevant impairment of mental health up to symptoms of major depression disorder. The degree of depressive symptoms is also distinctly associated with the serological inflammatory marker CRP.

Never mind losing the pound… still got the penny! The influence of trait greed on risky decision behavior in a mixed and gain only BART

Risk proneness and the lack of loss aversion are two different reasons to show varying degrees of risk-taking in decision situations. So far, little is known about the extent to which these two processes underly the influence of trait greed, trait anxiety, and age. The present study investigated risk- taking in decision making in these trait contexts using two variants of the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) in an online study: A gain only and a mixed gambling BART. This was done to separate risk proneness from loss aversion. Individuals with high trait greed showed an increased risk decision-making behavior due to an increased risk proneness and not due to a reduced loss aversion. This is partly in contrast with previous findings in other tasks assessing risk proneness and loss aversion. These differences may be caused by the changes of perception during the gain only task. No significant effects were found for trait anxiety or age concerning risk-taking in decision-making behavior. Possible explanations for the lack of influence of these constructs are skewed distributions, omitting pathologically anxious subjects in anxiety and a restricted age range. The findings suggest that a lack of loss aversion is not a driving factor to explain elevated risk-taking in decision-making behavior in persons with high trait greed, but a higher reaction to reward in predominantly rewarding contexts.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12144-022-03553-6.

Standardizing continuous data classifications in a virtual T-maze using two-layer feedforward networks

There continues to be difficulties when it comes to replication of studies in the field of Psychology. In part, this may be caused by insufficiently standardized analysis methods that may be subject to state dependent variations in performance. In this work, we show how to easily adapt the two-layer feedforward neural network architecture provided by Huang¹ to a behavioral classification problem as well as a physiological classification problem which would not be solvable in a standardized way using classical regression or "simple rule" approaches. In addition, we provide an example for a new research paradigm along with this standardized analysis method. This paradigm as well as the analysis method can be adjusted to any necessary modification or applied to other paradigms or research questions. Hence, we wanted to show that two-layer feedforward neural networks can be used to increase standardization as well as replicability and illustrate this with examples based on a virtual T-maze paradigm^2-5 including free virtual movement via joystick and advanced physiological data signal processing.

The development of trait greed during young adulthood: A simultaneous investigation of environmental effects and negative core beliefs

Recent models of personality development have emphasized the role of the environment in terms of selection and socialization effects and their interaction. Our study provides partial evidence for these models and, crucially, extends these models by adding a person variable: Core beliefs, which are defined as mental representations of experiences that individuals have while pursuing need-fulfilling goals. Specifically, we report results from a longitudinal investigation of the development of trait greed across time. Based on data from the German Personality Panel, we analyzed data on 1,965 young adults on up to 4 occasions, spanning a period of more than 3 years. According to our results, negative core beliefs that have so far been proposed only in the clinical literature (e.g., being unloved or being insecure) contributed to the development of trait greed, indicating that striving for material goals might be a substitute for unmet needs in the past. Additionally, greedy individuals more often self-selected themselves into business-related environments, which presumably allow them to fulfill their greed-related need to earn a lot of money. Our results expose important mechanisms for trait greed development. Regarding personality development in general, core beliefs were identified as an important variable for future theory building.

Construction and Validation of a Scale to Measure Loneliness and Isolation During Social Distancing and Its Effect on Mental Health

A variety of factors contribute to the degree to which a person feels lonely and socially isolated. These factors may be particularly relevant in contexts requiring social distancing, e.g., during the COVID-19 pandemic or in states of immunodeficiency. We present the Loneliness and Isolation during Social Distancing (LISD) Scale. Extending existing measures, the LISD scale measures both state and trait aspects of loneliness and isolation, including indicators of social connectedness and support. In addition, it reliably predicts individual differences in anxiety and depression. Data were collected online from two independent samples in a social distancing context (the COVID-19 pandemic). Factorial validation was based on exploratory factor analysis (EFA; Sample 1, N = 244) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA; Sample 2, N = 304). Multiple regression analyses were used to assess how the LISD scale predicts state anxiety and depression. The LISD scale showed satisfactory fit in both samples. Its two state factors indicate being lonely and isolated as well as connected and supported, while its three trait factors reflect general loneliness and isolation, sociability and sense of belonging, and social closeness and support. Our results imply strong predictive power of the LISD scale for state anxiety and depression, explaining 33 and 51% of variance, respectively. Anxiety and depression scores were particularly predicted by low dispositional sociability and sense of belonging and by currently being more lonely and isolated. In turn, being lonely and isolated was related to being less connected and supported (state) as well as having lower social closeness and support in general (trait). We provide a novel scale which distinguishes between acute and general dimensions of loneliness and social isolation while also predicting mental health. The LISD scale could be a valuable and economic addition to the assessment of mental health factors impacted by social distancing.

On second thought … the influence of a second stage in the ultimatum game on decision behavior, electro-cortical correlates and their trait interrelation

Previous EEG research only investigated one stage ultimatum games (UGs). We investigated the influence of a second bargaining stage in an UG concerning behavioral responses, electro-cortical correlates and their moderations by the traits altruism, anger, anxiety, and greed in 92 participants. We found that an additional stage led to more rejection in the 2-stage UG (2SUG) and that increasing offers in the second stage compared to the first stage led to more acceptance. The FRN during a trial was linked to expectance evaluation concerning the fairness of the offers, while midfrontal theta was a marker for the needed cognitive control to overcome the respective default behavioral pattern. The FRN responses to unfair offers were more negative for either low or high altruism in the UG, while high trait anxiety led to more negative FRN responses in the first stage of 2SUG, indicating higher sensitivity to unfairness. Accordingly, the mean FRN response, representing the trait-like general electrocortical reactivity to unfairness, predicted rejection in the first stage of 2SUG. Additionally, we found that high trait anger led to more rejections for unfair offer in 2SUG in general, while trait altruism led to more rejection of unimproving unfair offers in the second stage of 2SUG. In contrast, trait anxiety led to more acceptance in the second stage of 2SUG, while trait greed even led to more acceptance if the offer was worse than in the stage before. These findings suggest, that 2SUG creates a trait activation situation compared to the UG.

Neural Correlates of Successful Costly Punishment in the Ultimatum Game on a Trial-by-Trial Basis

Costly punishment describes decisions of an interaction partner to punish an opponent for violating rules of fairness at the expense of personal costs. Here, we extend the interaction process by investigating the impact of a socio-emotional reaction of the opponent in response to the punishment that indicates whether punishment was successful or not. In a modified Ultimatum game, emotional facial expressions of the proposer in response to the decision of the responder served as feedback stimuli. We found that both honored reward following acceptance of an offer (smiling compared to neutral facial expression) and successful punishment (sad compared to neutral facial expression) elicited a reward positivity, indicating that punishment was the intended outcome. By comparing the pattern of results with a probabilistic learning task, we show that the reward positivity on sad facial expressions was specific for the context of costly punishment. Additionally, acceptance rates on a trial-by-trial basis were altered according to P3 amplitudes in response to the emotional facial reaction of the proposer. Our results are in line with the concept of costly punishment as an intentional act following norm-violating behavior. Socio-emotional stimuli have an important influence on the perception and behavior in economic bargaining.

Measurement invariance testing of longitudinal neuropsychiatric test scores distinguishes pathological from normative cognitive decline and highlights its potential in early detection research

OBJECTIVE

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a growing challenge worldwide, which is why the search for early-onset predictors must be focused as soon as possible. Longitudinal studies that investigate courses of neuropsychological and other variables screen for such predictors correlated to mild cognitive impairment (MCI). However, one often neglected issue in analyses of such studies is measurement invariance (MI), which is often assumed but not tested for. This study uses the absence of MI (non-MI) and latent factor scores instead of composite variables to assess properties of cognitive domains, compensation mechanisms, and their predictability to establish a method for a more comprehensive understanding of pathological cognitive decline.

METHODS

An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and a set of increasingly restricted confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) were conducted to find latent factors, compared them with the composite approach, and to test for longitudinal (partial-)MI in a neuropsychiatric test battery, consisting of 14 test variables. A total of 330 elderly (mean age: 73.78 ± 1.52 years at baseline) were analyzed two times (3 years apart).

RESULTS

EFA revealed a four-factor model representing declarative memory, attention, working memory, and visual-spatial processing. Based on CFA, an accurate model was estimated across both measurement timepoints. Partial non-MI was found for parameters such as loadings, test- and latent factor intercepts as well as latent factor variances. The latent factor approach was preferable to the composite approach.

CONCLUSION

The overall assessment of non-MI latent factors may pose a possible target for this field of research. Hence, the non-MI of variances indicated variables that are especially suited for the prediction of pathological cognitive decline, while non-MI of intercepts indicated general aging-related decline. As a result, the sole assessment of MI may help distinguish pathological from normative aging processes and additionally may reveal compensatory neuropsychological mechanisms.

Neuro-Behavioral Dynamic Prediction of Interpersonal Cooperation and Aggression

How to quickly predict an individual's behavioral choices is an important issue in the field of human behavior research. Using noninvasive electroencephalography, we aimed to identify neural markers in the prior outcome-evaluation stage and the current option-assessment stage of the chicken game that predict an individual's behavioral choices in the subsequent decision-output stage. Hierarchical linear modeling-based brain-behavior association analyses revealed that midfrontal theta oscillation in the prior outcome-evaluation stage positively predicted subsequent aggressive choices; also, beta oscillation in the current option-assessment stage positively predicted subsequent cooperative choices. These findings provide electrophysiological evidence for the three-stage theory of decision-making and strengthen the feasibility of predicting an individual's behavioral choices using neural oscillations.

Between Joy and Sympathy: Smiling and Sad Recipient Faces Increase Prosocial Behavior in the Dictator Game

In human interactions, the facial expression of a bargaining partner may contain relevant information that affects prosocial decisions. We were interested in whether facial expressions of the recipient in the dictator game influence dictators’ behavior. To test this, we conducted an online study (n = 106) based on a modified version of a dictator game. The dictators allocated money between themselves and another person (recipient), who had no possibility to respond to the dictator. Importantly, before the allocation decision, the dictator was presented with the facial expression of the recipient (angry, disgusted, sad, smiling, or neutral). The results showed that dictators sent more money to recipients with sad or smiling facial expressions and less to recipients with angry or disgusted facial expressions compared with a neutral facial expression. Moreover, based on the sequential analysis of the decision and the interaction partner in the preceding trial, we found that decision-making depends upon previous interactions.

EPOS: EEG Processing Open-Source Scripts

Background

Since the replication crisis, standardization has become even more important in psychological science and neuroscience. As a result, many methods are being reconsidered, and researchers’ degrees of freedom in these methods are being discussed as a potential source of inconsistencies across studies.

New Method

With the aim of addressing these subjectivity issues, we have been working on a tutorial-like EEG (pre-)processing pipeline to achieve an automated method based on the semi-automated analysis proposed by Delorme and Makeig.

Results

Two scripts are presented and explained step-by-step to perform basic, informed ERP and frequency-domain analyses, including data export to statistical programs and visual representations of the data. The open-source software EEGlab in MATLAB is used as the data handling platform, but scripts based on code provided by Mike Cohen (2014) are also included.

Comparison with existing methods

This accompanying tutorial-like article explains and shows how the processing of our automated pipeline affects the data and addresses, especially beginners in EEG-analysis, as other (pre)-processing chains are mostly targeting rather informed users in specialized areas or only parts of a complete procedure. In this context, we compared our pipeline with a selection of existing approaches.

Conclusion

The need for standardization and replication is evident, yet it is equally important to control the plausibility of the suggested solution by data exploration. Here, we provide the community with a tool to enhance the understanding and capability of EEG-analysis. We aim to contribute to comprehensive and reliable analyses for neuro-scientific research.

In Your Face(t)-Personality Traits Interact With Prototypical Personality Faces in Economic Decision Making

In everyday life, assumptions about our peers' as well as our own personality shape social interactions. We investigated whether self-rated personality and inferences drawn from partners' faces influence economic decisions. Participants (N = 285) played the trust game in the role of the trustor as well as the ultimatum game in the role of the proposer and interacted with trustees and receivers represented by prototypical personality faces. Participants also evaluated both their own traits and the personality of the faces. In the trust game, trustees represented by faces rated higher on agreeableness yielded higher transferred amounts. This effect was more pronounced for trustors low on dispositional trust, whereas trustors high on dispositional trust did not relate their decisions to the faces. Trustees represented by faces rated higher on conscientiousness yielded higher transferred amounts only for trustors high on dispositional anxiety. In the ultimatum game, receivers represented by faces rated higher on conscientiousness yielded lower offers only for proposers high on dispositional assertiveness. These results extend previous findings on the inferences drawn from facial features and the influence of personality on decision making. They highlight the importance of considering the personality of both interaction partner, as well as potential interactions of players' traits.

We, Them, and It: Dictator Game Offers Depend on Hierarchical Social Status, Artificial Intelligence, and Social Dominance

We investigated the influence of social status on behavior in a modified dictator game (DG). Since the DG contains an inherent dominance gradient, we examined the relationship between dictator decisions and recipient status, which was operationalized by three social identities and an artificial intelligence (AI). Additionally, we examined the predictive value of social dominance orientation (SDO) on the behavior of dictators toward the different social and non-social hierarchical recipients. A multilevel model analysis showed that recipients with the same status as the dictator benefited the most and the artificial intelligence the least. Furthermore, SDO, regardless of social status, predicted behavior toward recipients in such a way that higher dominance was associated with lower dictator offers. In summary, participants treated other persons of higher and lower status equally, those of equal status better and, above all, an algorithm worst. The large proportion of female participants and the limited variance of SDO should be taken into account with regard to the results of individual differences in SDO.

Methods matter: An examination of factors that moderate predictions of the capability model concerning the relationship of frontal asymmetry to trait measures

The capability model of anterior asymmetry integrates trait-related and state-related frontal asymmetry research by proposing that frontal asymmetry is dependent on relevant traits if they are activated by a situation. However, differences in experimental design and EEG recording methods haven't been fully explored. We investigated 56 participants under three different situational paradigms (virtual T-maze, mental imagery, movies), varying the stimulus and type of measurement concerning frontal asymmetry. We predicted that "strong" situational manipulations (virtual T-maze, frontal asymmetry measured as event-related desynchronization) would eclipse relationships between frontal asymmetry and relevant traits, whereas "weaker" task manipulations, measured during longer time periods, would enhance relationships to relevant traits compared to frontal asymmetry at rest. The results confirmed these expectations, stressing the importance of stimulus characteristics, trait measures and recording methods with respect to the capability model. Additionally, a revision of the capability model to an inverse U-shaped quadratic relationship might be appropriate.

Age-Related Differences in Emoji Evaluation

BACKGROUND

For decades, the nature of emotions has been at the center of psychological research, particularly regarding the underlying mechanisms that enable people to perceive, recognize, and process emotional stimuli. Research has indicated that there are interindividual differences in the processing of emotions. This includes age, which underlies neurological changes that contribute to the specific processing of emotions. Increasing age seems to be associated with a more positive evaluation of emotional information, from perception itself to attention, memory, and decision-making.

METHOD

The current study aimed to investigate whether these differences can be found in highly artificial emotional faces. Since emojis are representatives of emotional faces in digital communication, we selected a subset of 13 emojis and asked 170 participants to evaluate them for their ability to represent different target emotions.

RESULTS

An exploratory factor analysis revealed a two-factorial structure with positive and negative valence for most of the ratings for the evaluated emojis. Furthermore, a multilevel model analysis based on the individual factor scores indicated higher age to be associated with an increase in factor scores for negative valence compared to positive valence.

CONCLUSION

In the present study, a trend for an age-specific positivity bias could only be shown in the classical smiley, while other emojis were related to negative valence with increasing age. Thus, we revealed age-related differences in emotion classification, even for highly artificial stimuli such as emojis.

It's costly punishment, not altruistic: Low midfrontal theta and state anger predict punishment

Punishment in economic games has been interpreted as "altruistic." However, it was shown that punishment is related to trait anger instead of trait altruism in a third-party dictator game if compensation is also available. Here, we investigated the influence of state anger on punishment and compensation in the third-party dictator game. Therefore, we used movie sequences for emotional priming, including the target states anger, happy, and neutral. We measured the Feedback-Related Negativity (FRN) and midfrontal theta band activation, to investigate an electro-cortical correlate of the processing of fair and unfair offers. Also, we assessed single-trial FRN and midfrontal theta band activation as a predictor for punishment and compensation. We found that punishment was linked to state anger. Midfrontal theta band activation, which has previously been linked to altruistic acts and cognitive control, predicted less punishment. Additionally, trait anger led to enhanced FRN for unfair offers. This led to the interpretation that the FRN depicts the evaluation of fairness, while midfrontal theta band activation captures an aspect of cognitive control and altruistic motivation. We conclude that we need to redefine "altruistic punishment" into "costly punishment," as no direct link of altruism and punishment is given. Additionally, midfrontal theta band activation complements the FRN and offers additional insights into complex responses and decision processes, especially as a single trial predictor.

The value of a real face: Differences between affective faces and emojis in neural processing and their social influence on decision-making

Emotional feedback is a crucial part of social interaction, since it may indicate motivations, intentions, and thus, the future behavior of interaction partners. Nowadays, social interaction has been enriched by artificial emotional feedback provided by emojis, which are the means of transporting emotions in mobile messengers. In this study, we examined the influence of emotional feedback by emojis compared to real faces on decision-making and neural processing. We modified the ultimatum game by including proposers represented both by emojis and human faces who reacted specifically toward acceptance or rejection of an offer. We show that proposers who reward acceptance with a smile cause the highest acceptance rates. Interestingly, acceptance rates did not differ between proposers represented by humans compared to emojis. Regarding electrophysiology, emojis evoked more negative N170 and N2 brain potentials compared to human faces both during a mere presentation and as feedback stimuli. Proposers that showed emotional facial expressions evoked larger N170 amplitudes as compared to neutral expressions. Especially the proposers represented by emojis evoked larger P3 amplitudes as feedback stimuli compared to human facial expressions. The comparison of emoji proposers with real-face proposers provides new insight into how relevant social cues influence behavior and its neural underpinnings.

A neural perspective on when and why trait greed comes at the expense of others

Depending on the point of view, conceptions of greed range from being a desirable and inevitable feature of a well-regulated, well-balanced economy to the root of all evil - radix omnium malorum avaritia (Tim 6.10). Regarding the latter, it has been proposed that greedy individuals strive for obtaining desired goods at all costs. Here, we show that trait greed predicts selfish economic decisions that come at the expense of others in a resource dilemma. This effect was amplified when individuals strived for obtaining real money, as compared to points, and when their revenue was at the expense of another person, as compared to a computer. On the neural level, we show that individuals high, compared to low in trait greed showed a characteristic signature in the EEG, a reduced P3 effect to positive, compared to negative feedback, indicating that they may have a lack of sensitivity to adjust behavior according to positive and negative stimuli from the environment. Brain-behavior relations further confirmed this lack of sensitivity to behavior adjustment as a potential underlying neuro-cognitive mechanism which explains selfish and reckless behavior that may come at the expense of others.

Altruistic punishment is connected to trait anger, not trait altruism, if compensation is available

Altruistic punishment and altruistic compensation are important concepts that are used to investigate altruism. However, altruistic punishment has been found to be correlated with anger. We were interested whether altruistic punishment and altruistic compensation are both driven by trait altruism and trait anger or whether the influence of those two traits is more specific to one of the behavioral options. We found that if the participants were able to apply altruistic compensation and altruistic punishment together in one paradigm, trait anger only predicts altruistic punishment and trait altruism only predicts altruistic compensation. Interestingly, these relations are disguised in classical altruistic punishment and altruistic compensation paradigms where participants can either only punish or compensate. Hence altruistic punishment and altruistic compensation paradigms should be merged together if one is interested in trait altruism without the confounding influence of trait anger.

Situational Judgment Tests as an Alternative Measure for Personality Assessment

Abstract. Across many domains of applied psychology, personality traits are related to important outcomes such as well-being, psychological disorders, work performance, and academic achievement. However, self-reports, the most common approach to personality assessment, have certain limitations and disadvantages, such as being prone to faking. We investigated whether situational judgment tests, an established assessment technique to predict job performance, might serve as an alternative measure for the assessment of personality. Our results show that a situational judgment test specifically developed to assess narrow personality traits may possess high levels of construct validity. Additionally, our results indicate that the situational judgment was equivalent to a self-report personality measure with regard to predicting a number of theoretically related criteria. We conclude that situational judgment tests may serve as an alternative method for the assessment of personality and discuss potential theoretical and applied drawbacks.

What Makes Us Feel Good or Bad

Abstract. Affective science calls for methods to induce mood in an engaging and ecologically valid way. We present a method employing a naturally occurring scenario that fits these criteria: a job interview. Participants got positive or negative feedback from a fictive expert to induce positive or negative mood. After mood induction, we assessed participants’ decision making behavior in the so-called information sampling task (IST). Results show that our mood induction successfully changed valence, dominance, and state self-esteem ratings, while there were no differences in arousal ratings. Decision making in the IST was not influenced by the induced mood. Effect sizes of mood induction were equally high for positive and negative mood concerning valence ratings (d = .8) with participants scoring high on self-control showing smaller mood induction effects. We conclude that our mood induction technique is an effective and natural way to induce mood in the laboratory, meeting current criteria of affective science.

The reward-like nature of social cues that indicate successful altruistic punishment

Altruistic punishment is the attempt to penalize deviant behavior of another person even though it is accompanied by personal costs. Here, we investigated the influence of the reaction on the socioemotional level of the other person following altruistic punishment behavior on future decision making and neural responses. We used a modified ultimatum game, which included an emotional facial feedback of the proposer following the decision of the participant. We found higher acceptance rates for proposers showing a smile upon acceptance or a sad face upon rejection of an offer, compared to proposers showing a neutral facial expression. On the neural level, we found a reversed N2 effect for negative emotional faces in the context of altruistic punishment, compared to a control condition. Specifically, when following the rejection of an unfair offer, negative emotional faces showed a reward-like positivity that might signal successful altruistic punishment. In addition, differential effects for P3 amplitudes might signal the subjective importance of a desired outcome. Our results are in line with the interpretation that rejection of unfair offers in the ultimatum game is due to intended altruistic punishment. Social cues may exhibit reward-like properties when indicating successful altruistic punishment and can influence subsequent decision making.

Measuring Prosocial Tendencies in Germany: Sources of Validity and Reliablity of the Revised Prosocial Tendency Measure

The prosocial tendencies measure (PTM; Carlo and Randall, 2002) is a widely used measurement for prosocial tendencies in English speaking participants. This instrument distinguishes between six different types of prosocial tendencies that partly share some common basis, but also can be opposed to each other. To examine these constructs in Germany, a study with 1067 participants was conducted. The study investigated the structure of this German version of the PTM-R via exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, correlations with similar constructs in subsamples as well as via measurement invariance test concerning the original English version. The German translation showed a similar factor structure to the English version in exploratory factor analysis and in confirmatory factor analysis. Measurement invariance was found between the English and German language versions of the PTM and support for the proposed six-factor structure (altruistic, anonymous, compliant, dire, emotional and public prosocial behavior) was also found in confirmatory factor analysis. Furthermore, the expected interrelations of these factors of prosocial behavior tendencies were obtained. Finally, correlations of the prosocial behavior tendencies with validating constructs and behaviors were found. Thus, the findings stress the importance of seeing prosocial behavior not as a single dimension construct, but as a factored construct which now can also be assessed in German speaking participants.

I can't wait! Neural reward signals in impulsive individuals exaggerate the difference between immediate and future rewards

Waiting for rewards is difficult, and highly impulsive individuals with low self-control have an especially hard time with it. Here, we investigated whether neural responses to rewards in a delayed gratification task predict impulsivity and self-control. The EEG was recorded from participants engaged in a guessing game in which on each trial they could win either a large or small reward, paid either now or after 6 months. Ratings confirmed that participants preferred immediate, large rewards over small, delayed rewards. Electrophysiological reward signals reflecting the difference between immediate and future rewards predicted self-report measures of impulsivity and self-control. Further, these signals were highly reliable across two sessions over a 1-week interval, showing high temporal stability like stable personality traits. These results suggest that greater valuation of immediate rewards causes impulsive individuals to redirect control away from delayed rewards, indicating why it is so hard for them to wait.

The Feedback-related Negativity Reflects the Combination of Instantaneous and Long-term Values of Decision Outcomes

Hundreds of ERP studies have reported a midfrontal negative-going amplitude shift following negative compared with positive action outcomes. This feedback-related negativity (FRN) effect is typically thought to reflect an early and binary mechanism of action evaluation in the posterior midcingulate cortex. However, in prior research on the FRN effect, the instantaneous value and the long-term value of action outcomes have been perfectly confounded. That is, instantaneously positive outcomes were generally consistent with task goals, whereas instantaneously negative outcomes were inconsistent with task goals. In this study, we disentangled these two outcome aspects in two experiments. Our results reveal an interaction of instantaneous and long-term outcome values. More precisely, our findings strongly suggest that the FRN effect is mainly driven by a reward positivity, which is evoked only by outcomes that possess an instantaneously positive value and also help the organism to reach its long-term goals. These findings add to a recent literature according to which the posterior midcingulate cortex acts as a hierarchical reinforcement learning system and suggest that this system integrates instant and long-term action-outcome values. This, in turn, might be crucial for learning optimal behavioral strategies in a given setting.

Dispositional Anxiety and Frontal-Midline Theta: On the Modulatory Influence of Sex and Situational Threat

In their adaptive control hypothesis, Cavanagh and Shackman (2015) recently claimed that dispositional anxiety is correlated with frontal-midline theta (FMθ) as a generic "need for control" signal of the anterior midcingulate cortex. Here, we tested this assumption, also considering potential modulatory influences of anticipatory threat and individuals' sex. In a nonclinical sample of 168 participants (84 women), electroencephalogram was recorded while individuals performed a simple two-choice task. Half of the participants were assigned to a threat anticipation condition (anticipation of public speaking), whereas the other half was assigned to a control condition. State anxiety was monitored across the experiment. Dispositional anxiety was assessed by self-report scales, which were completed before individuals came to the laboratory. Target stimuli in the two-choice task induced a transient increase in FMθ power that was subject to an interaction of dispositional anxiety, sex, and experimental group. Only in women who anticipated public speaking did we observe a substantial positive relation between dispositional anxiety and general FMθ power. Our results indicate that the link between dispositional anxiety and FMθ is not universal but rather depends on complex interactions of individuals' sex and situational threat.

Influences of State and Trait Affect on Behavior, Feedback-Related Negativity, and P3b in the Ultimatum Game

The present study investigates how different emotions can alter social bargaining behavior. An important paradigm to study social bargaining is the Ultimatum Game. There, a proposer gets a pot of money and has to offer part of it to a responder. If the responder accepts, both players get the money as proposed by the proposer. If he rejects, none of the players gets anything. Rational choice models would predict that responders accept all offers above 0. However, evidence shows that responders typically reject a large proportion of all unfair offers. We analyzed participants’ behavior when they played the Ultimatum Game as responders and simultaneously collected electroencephalogram data in order to quantify the feedback-related negativity and P3b components. We induced state affect (momentarily emotions unrelated to the task) via short movie clips and measured trait affect (longer-lasting emotional dispositions) via questionnaires. State happiness led to increased acceptance rates of very unfair offers. Regarding neurophysiology, we found that unfair offers elicited larger feedback-related negativity amplitudes than fair offers. Additionally, an interaction of state and trait affect occurred: high trait negative affect (subsuming a variety of aversive mood states) led to increased feedback-related negativity amplitudes when participants were in an angry mood, but not if they currently experienced fear or happiness. We discuss that increased rumination might be responsible for this result, which might not occur, however, when people experience happiness or fear. Apart from that, we found that fair offers elicited larger P3b components than unfair offers, which might reflect increased pleasure in response to fair offers. Moreover, high trait negative affect was associated with decreased P3b amplitudes, potentially reflecting decreased motivation to engage in activities. We discuss implications of our results in the light of theories and research on depression and anxiety.

Predicting Creativity Based on the Facets of the Theoretical Intellect Framework

The present study investigates how the construct intellect, according to the Theoretical Intellect Framework (TIF), predicts creativity. The TIF is a theoretical model describing the structure of the construct intellect, a sub–dimension of the Big Five domain openness to experience. People (N = 2709) from two sub–samples (undergraduate students and Amazon MTurkers) completed one of three creativity tasks (self–reported, remote associates, or rated photo caption) and the Intellect Scale. The results support hypotheses derived from the TIF, as the operation Create, rather than the operations Think or Learn, significantly and in some cases uniquely predicted the self–reported creativity indicators. Creativity indicators with a strong cognitive load (remote associates test and rated photo caption), however, were predicted by the operation Think. Results are discussed with regards to the nomological net of the operation Create and the construct validity of the creativity assessments. We provide implications for applied purposes and call for further examination of the TIF with additional creativity measures. Copyright © 2015 European Association of Personality Psychology

A neural signature of fairness in altruism: a game of theta?

In the dictator game, a proposer can share a certain amount of money between himself or herself and a receiver, who has no opportunity of influencing the offer. Rational choice theory predicts that dictators keep all money for themselves. But people often are offering money to receivers, despite their opportunity to maximize their own profit and therefore showing altruistic behavior. In this study, we investigated the influence of the altruism of the dictator, the anonymity of the decision and the income of the receiver on the offer made by a dictator. Additionally, we were interested in the influence of midfrontal theta activity prior to the offer, indicating the upcoming decision. The height of the offer made by the dictator was dependent on all variables investigated: Altruism of the dictator led to higher offers and income of the receiver led to higher offer the poorer the receivers are. The anonymity of the decision had two effects, depending on the altruism of the dictator, with higher offers for highly altruistic dictators, when they were not observed, and lower offers for less altruistic dictators in this condition. Finally, midfrontal theta activity predicts upcoming fair offers, maybe indicating altruistic motivation or empathy on physiological basis.