Investigation of Two Preliminary Analysis-Altering Elements: Ordinate Scaling and DPPXYR

The purpose of this pre-registered study (Peltier & McKenna) was to conceptually replicate if the truncation of the ordinate and DPPXYR increased analysts' estimation of a functional relation and magnitude of treatment effect. Visual analysts (n = 27) evaluated eight data sets reporting null (n = 2), small (n = 2), moderate (n = 2), and large (n = 2) effects. Each data set was graphed six times with manipulations of the ordinate and DPPXYR, resulting in 48 ABAB graphs. We estimated two separate three-level mixed effect models with variations nested in datasets and nested in participants to evaluate the impact of graph characteristics for (1) confidence in determining a functional relation and (2) the estimated magnitude of the treatment effect. We included ordinate scaling and DPPXYR at level 1 and graph effect size at level 2, including all interactions. Overall, graph manipulation consistently did not impact confidence in a functional relation. Results suggest mixed findings for graph manipulation on the estimated magnitude of the treatment effect. Findings will be couched in current literature and recommendations for graph construction and future research will be discussed.

More than de minimis: FAPE in the Post Endrew F. Era

Federal regulations for special education services have focused primarily on procedural issues since the Rowley decision, which held that Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) need only be reasonably calculated to yield educational benefit. However, the minimum threshold for benefit has changed with the recent Endrew F. decision as IEPs must yield more than de minimis progress. To ensure sufficient progress toward the achievement of ambitious goals, schools must develop IEPs that meet procedural and substantive requirements, employ interventions with clear evidence of effectiveness, effectively measure student response to services, and to communicate this information with parents/guardians so that they can actively participate in this process. Manuscripts invited for this special issue include investigations of IEP quality; co-teaching; intervention studies in reading, writing, and mathematics; meta-analytic findings regarding social studies education; and a discussion of the implications of Endrew F. for different student disability populations. These papers discuss challenges faced by stakeholders with vested interests in students with disabilities as well as areas of continued development and refinement in evidence-based practice.

Reading Instruction for Students with Emotional Disturbance: A Mixed-Methods Investigation

Although there is a substantial body of observation research investigating the manner in which reading instruction is provided to students with learning disabilities, there is little research in this area involving students with and at risk for emotional disturbance. The purpose of this investigation was to contribute to the limited corpus of observation studies investigating school-based practice in reading for this student population. In this investigation, 11 teachers from two states were systematically observed while providing reading instruction over the course of the 2017-2018 school year. Participating students were also observed over the course of the year and completed two standardized reading assessments at the beginning and end of this investigation. Teachers were also interviewed to identify contextual factors that promote or impede the provision of high quality reading instruction to this student population. Study findings suggest that teachers are in need of additional training, support, and resources to maximize instructional time. Students in this sample tended to make no or minimal progress in reading and were frequently observed displaying low levels of academic engagement across settings. Implications for school practice and areas for future research are discussed.

An Evaluation of Single-Case Reading Intervention Study Quality for Students With and At Risk for Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

Researchers have noted the lack of research to guide reading practice for students with and at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). Although comprehensive syntheses have identified promising practices and areas for future research, none have evaluated the rigor of studies according to quality indicators. The current study evaluated the extant single-case reading intervention research for this student population according to the What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) standards. Thirty studies met article selection criteria, 20 (66.6%) of which had at least one dependent variable that did not meet design standards. Study findings suggest a need for researchers to employ stronger designs and place a greater emphasis on investigating the effects of reading instructional practices in inclusive settings. Overall, two reading interventions were identified as potentially promising: cognitive mapping and a listening while reading accommodation. Furthermore, findings suggest that it may be advantageous to embed behavioral strategies within reading interventions. Study limitations include the exclusive use of single-case design studies and a reliance on visual analysis to determine intervention effectiveness.

A Systematic Review of Function-Based Replacement Behavior Interventions for Students With and At Risk for Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

Students with emotional and behavioral disorders and students considered at risk often have social deficits. Although social skills interventions are often provided to this student population, there are some concerns regarding how these interventions are conceived and provided. One possible way to improve the effectiveness of social skills interventions is to use functional behavior assessment data to tailor the interventions to a student’s individual needs and the contexts in which social skills deficits and problem behaviors occur. This approach is commonly referred to as replacement behavior training. In this study, the literature on function-based replacement behavior interventions is systematically reviewed. In addition, studies are evaluated according to the What Works Clearinghouse design and evidence standards for single-case research. Although this research base does not meet the What Works Clearinghouse replication standards, function-based replacement behavior interventions appear to be a promising practice for addressing problem behaviors. Implications for practice, areas for future research, and study limitations are discussed.

Validity and Reliability of GraphClick and DataThief III for Data Extraction

Researchers frequently rely on meta-analyses of prior research studies to efficiently evaluate a broad spectrum of results on a particular topic. In the realm of single-subject experimental designs (SSEDs), meta-analyses have a particular cachet: retaining the rigor of single-subject designs with the added robustness of replication to more fully determine the strength of a given approach or intervention. Until recently, researchers wishing to undertake meta-analytic research themselves have had limited options for synthesizing the intervention effects of a collection of studies. Researchers consistently use two software programs, DataThief III and GraphClick, to conduct meta-analytic work using SSEDs. The purpose of this study was to evaluate and compare the validity and reliability of the results yielded by each of these programs when evaluating the results of multiple research studies on the Good Behavior Game, a classroom-based intervention that has been in practice since 1969. Study findings suggest that both GraphClick and DataThief III provide valid methods of data extraction. In addition, both programs allow for reliable extraction of data between raters and between software programs. Limitations and directions for future research are explored.

Reviews of evidence regarding interventions to reduce tobacco use and exposure to environmental tobacco smoke

This report presents the results of systematic reviews of effectiveness, applicability, other effects, economic evaluations, and barriers to use of selected population-based interventions intended to reduce tobacco use and exposure to environmental tobacco smoke. The related systematic reviews are linked by a common conceptual approach. These reviews form the basis of recommendations by the Task Force on Community Preventive Services (TFCPS) regarding the use of these selected interventions. The TFCPS recommendations are presented on page 67 of this supplement.

Crafting effective tobacco counteradvertisements: lessons from a failed campaign directed at teenagers

Focus group research conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Office on Smoking and Health suggested that the desire of teenagers to gain control over their lives would make them responsive to a counteradvertising strategy aimed at exposing the predatory marketing techniques of the tobacco industry. On the basis of this strategy, the office developed draft print advertisements and a rough TV commercial featuring such theme lines as "You get an image. They get an addict." In those ads, "they" referred to cigarette companies. Subsequent testing of the campaign materials, however, indicated that the subtle, sophisticated execution of this concept of manipulation by the industry did not communicate clearly and effectively to an audience of young teens. In fact, 38 percent of those who viewed the rough TV spot believed that the main message promoted smoking. These negative test findings underscore the critical need for ongoing audience research throughout the creative process to ensure that campaign planners stay "in tune" with their consumers.

Past lessons and new uses of the mass media in reducing tobacco consumption

A review of mass media response to the smoking issue over the past 25 years reveals that sustained involvement of the broadcast and print media has served significantly to heighten public awareness and reduce smoking rates in the total U.S. population. Public service advertising has been an integral part of the smoking control movement from its outset, but today's intensely competitive media environment has forced health promoters to look beyond public service announcements in the development of total communication programs. Media advocacy--using the media to sharpen public awareness and mold public policy to serve the public interest, a technique derived from political campaigns--is emerging as a powerful tool in the smoking control movement. Its emphasis is on changing the entire social context of tobacco use in America, rather than the smoking behavior of people. Because media advocates' success pivots on their access to the media, they must be able both to create news and to react quickly to breaking news and unexpected events. The opportunistic, risk-taking nature of media advocacy requires that most efforts be waged at the State and local levels. An increasing number of State health departments and other organizations are using paid advertising to improve the frequency and reach of nonsmoking messages. Research verifies that paid media campaigns increase the target audience's exposure to smoking control messages, but planning and making efficient media purchases require sophistication and, of course, the necessary funds. Irrefutable medical evidence linking smoking to disease and addiction, combined with the powerful social force of the nonsmokers' rights movement, offer hope that a smoke-free society is an achievable goal. Success,however, will only be realized if tobacco control activists make use of the full range of mass media technologies to sustain and nourish this momentum.

Cancer prevention and control: from research through applications

As the understanding of the magnitude and social impact of cancer has advanced, three major forces have shaped the current state of the art in cancer prevention and control: the maturation of organization approaches to solving the cancer problem; the accumulation of scientific evidence that justified and illuminated the concept of cancer as a controllable disease; and, most recently, the development of a systematic cancer control research process that provides efficiency and clearer direction to the planning of a national cancer control program. The National Cancer Institute, recognizing the need for goal setting and scientific accountability in the conduct of cancer control research, has established quantified mortality reduction objectives for the year 2000 related to smoking cessation, diet changes, early detection, and state-of-the-art treatment. The cancer control research process and these objectives will guide the allocation of cancer control resources toward the application of effective health promotion strategies.

International control of smoking and the US experience

International data demonstrate convincingly that lung cancer death rates follow and parallel cigarette smoking prevalence rates in both men and women. Effective control of lung cancer and the many other diseases associated with smoking can be achieved only by continued reductions in smoking prevalence in developed countries and the arrestment of smoking in developing countries. Smoking control strategies can take the form of prevention programs, cessation programs, regulatory and legislative measures, and modifications in tobacco product composition. Because of uncertainties surrounding the efficacies of specific smoking control approaches, the National Cancer Institute recently initiated a major intervention research program to identify and assess the most promising strategies to reduce smoking prevalence in the general public and high-risk populations; heavy smokers, blacks, Hispanics, women, youth, and smokeless tobacco users. By 1990, trial results will be available to allow systematic application of smoking control strategies (demonstrations) using physicians and dentists, mass media, school programs, self-help materials, and the community as a laboratory. For a number of reasons, such approaches are strongly recommended over efforts to reduce cigarette tar and nicotine levels as the primary focus of lung cancer control.