Genome-wide association study of delay discounting in Heterogenous Stock rats

Delay discounting refers to the behavioral tendency to devalue rewards as a function of their delay in receipt. Heightened delay discounting has been associated with substance use disorders, as well as multiple co-occurring psychopathologies. Genetic studies in humans and animal models have established that delay discounting is a heritable trait, but only a few specific genes have been associated with delay discounting. Here, we aimed to identify novel genetic loci associated with delay discounting through a genome-wide association study (GWAS) using Heterogenous Stock rats, a genetically diverse outbred population derived from eight inbred founder strains. We assessed delay discounting in 650 male and female rats using an adjusting amount procedure in which rats chose between smaller immediate sucrose rewards or a larger reward at variable delays. Preference switch points were calculated for each rat and both exponential and hyperbolic functions were fitted to these indifference points. Area under the curve (AUC) and the discounting parameter k of both functions were used as delay discounting measures. GWAS for AUC, exponential k, and indifference points for a short delay identified significant loci on chromosomes 20 and 14. The gene Slc35f1, which encodes a member of the solute carrier family of nucleoside sugar transporters, was the only gene within the chromosome 20 locus. That locus also contained an eQTL for Slc35f1, suggesting that heritable differences in the expression of that gene might be responsible for the association with behavior. The gene Adgrl3, which encodes a member of the latrophilin family of G-protein coupled receptors, was the only gene within the chromosome 14 locus. These findings implicate novel genes in delay discounting and highlight the need for further exploration.

High-performance liquid chromatography and photoaffinity crosslinking to explore the binding environment of nevirapine to reverse transcriptase of human immunodeficiency virus

Nevirapine (BI-RG-587) is a potent inhibitor of the polymerase activity of reverse transcriptase of human immunodeficiency virus type-1. Nevirapine, as well as several other non-nucleoside compounds of various structural classes, bind strongly at a site which includes tyrosines 181 and 188 of the p66 subunit of reverse transcriptase. The chromatography which was utilized to explore this binding site is described. BI-RH-448 and BI-RJ-70, two tritiated photoaffinity azido analogues of nevirapine, are each crosslinked to reverse transcriptase. The use of several HPLC-based techniques employing different modes of detection makes it possible to demonstrate a dramatic difference between the two azido analogues in crosslinking behavior. In particular, by comparing HPLC tryptic peptide maps of the photoadducts formed between reverse transcriptase and each azido analogue, it can be shown that crosslinking with BI-RJ-70 but not with BI-RH-448 is more localized, stable, and hence exploitable for the identification of the specifically bonded amino acid residue(s). In addition, comparison of the tryptic maps also makes it feasible to assess which rings of the nevirapine structure are proximal or distal to amino acid side chains of reverse transcriptase. Finally, another feature of the HPLC peptide maps is the application of on-line detection by second order derivative UV absorbance spectroscopy to identify the crosslinked amino acid residue.

Rapid, sensitive and efficient HPLC assays for HIV-1 proteinase

The proteinase encoded by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) cleaves peptide substrates of sequences derived from processing sites in HIV-1 gag-pol polypeptide. Based on this cleavage, assays that utilize HPLC to measure activity of HIV-1 proteinase are reported herein. In the assay first described, a baseline separation of unlabeled substrate and products is achieved with a run time of 10 min and UV detection. Enzyme concentrations as low as 1 nM, which is the lowest reported for an assay employing underivatized peptide substrate, are attained. Even more powerful, versatile and sensitive, a second method that takes advantage of a peptide substrate labeled at its N-terminus with the fluorescein derivative is described as well. Because of the fluorescein label, this method offers several superior features, including very fast analysis of substrate and product in less than 3 min and fluorescence detection which provides essentially total freedom from interference. Synthesis of fluorescein-labeled peptide substrate is accomplished by solid-phase peptide synthesis.

Measurement of amino acid compositions of glycoprotein systems by gas-phase hydrolysis and reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography

Interest in glycoproteins and their compositions has increased in recent years. Work described in this report illustrates the use of an amino acid analysis protocol involving gas-phase hydrolysis and reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography of glycoprotein systems at microgram levels. In other amino acid analysis protocols the problem of losses of amino acids of glycoproteins has been documented. These losses were due to various reactions, referred to as browning or Maillard reactions, which yielded a residue from which amino acids were not recoverable. In our work, three glycoprotein systems are examined: ovalbumin, sICAM-1, and bovine serum albumin--which is naturally unglycosylated, but is spiked with about 30% saccharides. In all three cases, the compositional agreement between the molar ratio of amino acids determined empirically and that predicted is greater than 90%. Thus it is shown that the adverse effects of Maillard-type reactions are avoided, and the presence of carbohydrates causes negligible interferences with amino acid analysis performed under the conditions described herein.

Nonnucleoside inhibitors of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase: nevirapine as a prototype drug

Nevirapine, a dipyridodiazepinone, is a highly specific inhibitor of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase (RT) which exhibits an IC50 = 84nM in enzyme assays and IC50 = 40nM against HIV-1 replication in cell culture. This nonnucleoside inhibitor acts noncompetitively with respect to nucleoside triphosphates, template and primer suggesting that nevirapine does not bind to the active site of RT. Studies employing an azido analogue of nevirapine as a photoaffinity probe indicated that one molecule of inhibitor is sufficient to inactivate one molecule of heterodimeric enzyme and demonstrated that only the p66 subunit of p66/p51 heterodimeric RT is covalently labeled by this probe. When subjected to trypic mapping, Tyr 181 and Tyr 188 were labeled with probe and consequently these aromatic residues are apparently near or actually within the RT binding site for nevirapine. The extent to which Tyr 181 and Tyr 188 participate/contribute to nevirapine binding was determined by making amino acid substitutions at these positions using the corresponding residues from HIV-2 RT which is not sensitive to nevirapine. A change at either position dramatically decreased the enzymes' sensitivity to nevirapine, as well as to TIBO derivative and Merck L-693,593, indicating that both Tyr 181 and 188 are crucial for inhibitor-enzyme interaction. Cell culture selection in the continued presence of nevirapine results in the appearance of resistant HIV-1, Tyr 181 to Cys, raising the concern that combination drug therapy will be required in the clinic.

Rhinovirus 3C protease catalyzes efficient cleavage of a fluorescein-labeled peptide affording a rapid and robust assay

The 3C protease encoded by human rhinovirus type 2 catalyzes with equal efficiency cleavage of a peptide substrate with or without a fluorescein label attached to the amino acid at the P7' position. Substrates Ac-MEALFQGPLQYKDL-NH2 and MEALFQGPLQYKE(fluorescein)L are hydrolyzed with values of Vmax/KM of 970 M-1 s-1 and 1100 M-1 s-1, respectively. With the labeled substrate, HPLC achieves separation of substrate and product in 2.5 min. Separation in as little as 12 s is feasible. Fluorescein was derivatized so that it could be incorporated into peptides using automated solid-phase peptide synthesis.

Characterization of the binding site for nevirapine (BI-RG-587), a nonnucleoside inhibitor of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 reverse transcriptase

Nevirapine (BI-RG-587) is a potent and specific non-nucleoside inhibitor of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 reverse transcriptase. The compound is non-competitive with respect to template, primer, and nucleoside triphosphates indicating that BI-RG-587 does not act directly at the catalytic site. The binding site for this inhibitor was investigated by employing an azido photoaffinity analogue, BI-RJ-70, to covalently label the enzyme. The resulting photoadduct was subjected to enzymatic digestion by trypsin and endoproteinase lys-C and a single, highly labeled peptide was identified as residues 174-199. Sequencing of this peptide identified Tyr-181 and Tyr-188 as labeled residues.

Cleavage of synthetic peptides by purified poliovirus 3C proteinase

Synthetic peptides, 14-16 residues in length, were used as substrates for purified recombinant poliovirus proteinase 3C. The sequences of the substrates correspond to the sequences of authentic cleavage sites in the poliovirus polyprotein, all of which contain Gln-Gly at the scissile bond. Specificity of cleavages was demonstrated by analysis of 3C digests of synthetic peptides. Relative rate constants for the cleavages were derived by competition experiments. The rate constants roughly correlated with the estimated half-life of the homologous precursor proteins detected in poliovirus-infected cells. The peptide most resistant to cleavage corresponded to the 3C/3D junction, a site known to be cleaved very slowly by 3C in vivo. Substitution of threonine for alanine in P4 position of this peptide, however, resulted in significant cleavage. This observation supports the hypothesis that the residue in P4 position, in addition to the Gln-Gly in P1 and P1', respectively, contributes to substrate recognition. Ac-Gln-Gly-NH2 was not a substrate for 3C.

Connective tissue diseases and bovine collagen implants

Bovine collagen implants are biomaterial used for the correction of dermal contour deformities. The use of bovine collagen implants in patients with a personal history of autoimmune diseases is contraindicated by the manufacturer. In our study, sera from fifty patients with scleroderma, rheumatoid arthritis, and systemic lupus erythematosus were examined for antibodies to bovine collagen implants by means of a previously described enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. None of the patients had received bovine collagen implants. The anti-bovine collagen implant antibody levels in the sera of patients with scleroderma, systemic lupus erythematosus, and rheumatoid arthritis were not, in general, statistically different from those in the normal population.

Effects of dietary supplementation of fish oil on neutrophil and epidermal fatty acids. Modulation of clinical course of psoriatic subjects

Findings from an eight-week fish oil-supplemented diet given to 13 psoriatic patients demonstrated that eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5,n3 [EPA]) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6,n3 [DCHA]) are rapidly incorporated into the sera, neutrophils, and epidermis of participating patients, and that the incorporation of EPA and DCHA into epidermal lipids increased with weeks of supplementation with minimal alteration of arachidonic acid (AA) in the epidermal lipids. Global clinical evaluation showed that eight patients demonstrated mild to moderate improvement in their psoriatic lesions. Improved clinical response correlated with high EPA/DCHA ratios attained in epidermal tissue specimens. These findings underscore the need for further investigations into the role of dietary n3 fatty acids, particularly the possibility of pentaenoic acid as a potential protective agent and/or therapeutic adjunct for the clinical management of psoriasis.

Increased muscle tone during etretinate therapy

A 40-year-old man with severe psoriasis developed painless muscle stiffness coinciding with four successive courses of etretinate therapy. Peripheral nerve block extinguished the increased muscle tone. Our patient's symptoms resembled those of the stiff-man syndrome. Increased muscle tone is a potential side effect of etretinate treatment and must be distinguished from the common musculoskeletal symptoms observed in patients taking retinoid therapy.

Mobile-phase and temperature effects in the reversed phase chromatographic separation of proteins

This paper explores the influence of mobile-phase and temperature effects on the gradient elution reversed phase chromatographic behavior of proteins. Using LiChrospher SI 500, bonded with n-butyl groups and a gradient in 1-propanol, 10 mM H3PO4, rapid separation and high mass recovery were obtained for a series of globular proteins. This protein separation and recovery are compared to those obtained when acetonitrile and acetonitrile plus 10 mM H3PO4 are used as eluting gradient solvents. In general, acetonitrile yielded lower recovery than 1-propanol, particularly for the more hydrophobic proteins, e.g., ovalbumin. For all three gradient solvents, little difference was observed in retention or recovery when the n-alkyl chain of the bonded phase varied. On the other hand, relative to the n-alkyl phases, a significantly lower retention of all proteins was found on more hydrophilic phases, e.g., cyano and nonendcapped n-butyl, when acetonitrile was the organic modifier, while in the case of 1-propanol, no retention difference was observed. Thus, column comparisons depend on the protein/mobile-phase combinations examined. The role of column temperature was also studied, and it was found that for certain proteins dramatic changes in peak shape occurred as a function of temperature. The influences of ionic strength and salt type were also studied. Protein mass recovery was shown to decrease with an increase in salt concentration; moreover, perchlorate was shown to have a larger effect in this regard than phosphate. In addition, salt concentration and type were found to influence peak shape greatly in certain cases. The results indicate the strong influences of mobile phase and temperature on chromatographic behavior, and some of the options available when this behavior is not satisfactory. Several protein separations are presented illustrating the power of the reversed phase approach.

Gradient optimization principles in reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography and the separation of influenza virus components

Reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography is used to separate the major proteins of A/Bangkok/1/79 X 73 influenza virus. The purity of the isolated proteins, their yield and reactivity with monoclonal antibodies are discussed. The virus, in turn, is used as a probe to examine some theoretical gradient principles relating resolution, retention time and gradient time. Empirical compliance with these principles is generally shown.