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Makuch K, Hołyst R, Giżyński K, Maciołek A, Żuk PJ. Steady-state thermodynamics of a system with heat and mass flow coupling. J Chem Phys 2023; 159:194113. [PMID: 37982484 DOI: 10.1063/5.0170079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Equilibrium thermodynamics describes the energy exchange of a body with its environment. Here, we describe the global energy exchange of an ideal gas in the Coutte flow in a thermodynamic-like manner. We derive a fundamental relation between internal energy as a function of parameters of state. We analyze a non-equilibrium transition in the system and postulate the extremum principle, which determines stable steady states in the system. The steady-state thermodynamic framework resembles equilibrium thermodynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karol Makuch
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland
| | - Robert Hołyst
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland
| | - Konrad Giżyński
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland
| | - Anna Maciołek
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland
- Max-Planck-Institut für Intelligente Systeme Stuttgart, Heisenbergstr. 3, D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Paweł J Żuk
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland
- Department of Physics, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YB, United Kingdom
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Maciołek A, Hołyst R, Makuch K, Giżyński K, Żuk PJ. Parameters of State in the Global Thermodynamics of Binary Ideal Gas Mixtures in a Stationary Heat Flow. Entropy (Basel) 2023; 25:1505. [PMID: 37998197 PMCID: PMC10670342 DOI: 10.3390/e25111505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we formulate the first law of global thermodynamics for stationary states of the binary ideal gas mixture subjected to heat flow. We map the non-uniform system onto the uniform one and show that the internal energy U(S*,V,N1,N2,f1*,f2*) is the function of the following parameters of state: a non-equilibrium entropy S*, volume V, number of particles of the first component, N1, number of particles of the second component N2 and the renormalized degrees of freedom. The parameters f1*,f2*, N1,N2 satisfy the relation (N1/(N1+N2))f1*/f1+(N2/(N1+N2))f2*/f2=1 (f1 and f2 are the degrees of freedom for each component respectively). Thus, only 5 parameters of state describe the non-equilibrium state of the binary mixture in the heat flow. We calculate the non-equilibrium entropy S* and new thermodynamic parameters of state f1*,f2* explicitly. The latter are responsible for heat generation due to the concentration gradients. The theory reduces to equilibrium thermodynamics, when the heat flux goes to zero. As in equilibrium thermodynamics, the steady-state fundamental equation also leads to the thermodynamic Maxwell relations for measurable steady-state properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Maciołek
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland; (K.M.); (K.G.)
- Max-Planck-Institut für Intelligente Systeme Stuttgart, Heisenbergstr. 3, D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Robert Hołyst
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland; (K.M.); (K.G.)
| | - Karol Makuch
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland; (K.M.); (K.G.)
| | - Konrad Giżyński
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland; (K.M.); (K.G.)
| | - Paweł J. Żuk
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland; (K.M.); (K.G.)
- Department of Physics, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YB, UK
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Hołyst R, Żuk PJ, Makuch K, Maciołek A, Giżyński K. Fundamental Relation for the Ideal Gas in the Gravitational Field and Heat Flow. Entropy (Basel) 2023; 25:1483. [PMID: 37998175 PMCID: PMC10670277 DOI: 10.3390/e25111483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2023] [Revised: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
We formulate the first law of global thermodynamics for stationary states of the ideal gas in the gravitational field subjected to heat flow. We map the non-uniform system (described by profiles of the density and temperature) onto the uniform one and show that the total internal energy U(S*,V,N,L,M*) is the function of the following parameters of state: the non-equilibrium entropy S*, volume V, number of particles, N, height of the column L along the gravitational force, and renormalized mass of a particle M*. Each parameter corresponds to a different way of energy exchange with the environment. The parameter M* changes internal energy due to the shift of the centre of mass induced by the heat flux. We give analytical expressions for the non-equilibrium entropy S* and effective mass M*. When the heat flow goes to zero, S* approaches equilibrium entropy. Additionally, when the gravitational field vanishes, our fundamental relation reduces to the fundamental relation at equilibrium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Hołyst
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland; (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.G.)
| | - Paweł J. Żuk
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland; (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.G.)
- Department of Physics, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YB, UK
| | - Karol Makuch
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland; (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.G.)
| | - Anna Maciołek
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland; (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.G.)
- Max-Planck-Institut für Intelligente Systeme Stuttgart, Heisenbergstr. 3, D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Konrad Giżyński
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland; (K.M.); (A.M.); (K.G.)
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Hołyst R, Makuch K, Giżyński K, Maciołek A, Żuk PJ. Fundamental Relation for Gas of Interacting Particles in a Heat Flow. Entropy (Basel) 2023; 25:1295. [PMID: 37761594 PMCID: PMC10529676 DOI: 10.3390/e25091295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2023] [Revised: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
There is a long-standing question of whether it is possible to extend the formalism of equilibrium thermodynamics to the case of nonequilibrium systems in steady-states. We have made such an extension for an ideal gas in a heat flow. Here, we investigated whether such a description exists for the system with interactions: the van der Waals gas in a heat flow. We introduced a steady-state fundamental relation and the parameters of state, each associated with a single way of changing energy. The first law of nonequilibrium thermodynamics follows from these parameters. The internal energy U for the nonequilibrium states has the same form as in equilibrium thermodynamics. For the van der Waals gas, U(S*,V,N,a*,b*) is a function of only five parameters of state (irrespective of the number of parameters characterizing the boundary conditions): the effective entropy S*, volume V, number of particles N, and rescaled van der Waals parameters a*, b*. The state parameters, a*, b*, together with S*, determine the net heat exchange with the environment. The net heat differential does not have an integrating factor. As in equilibrium thermodynamics, the steady-state fundamental equation also leads to the thermodynamic Maxwell relations for measurable steady-state properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Hołyst
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland; (K.G.); (A.M.); (P.J.Ż.)
| | - Karol Makuch
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland; (K.G.); (A.M.); (P.J.Ż.)
| | - Konrad Giżyński
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland; (K.G.); (A.M.); (P.J.Ż.)
| | - Anna Maciołek
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland; (K.G.); (A.M.); (P.J.Ż.)
- Max-Planck-Institut für Intelligente Systeme Stuttgart, Heisenbergstr. 3, D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Paweł J. Żuk
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warszawa, Poland; (K.G.); (A.M.); (P.J.Ż.)
- Department of Physics, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YB, UK
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Łyczek J, Bończak B, Krzymińska I, Giżyński K, Paczesny J. Gold-oxoborate nanocomposite-coated orthodontic brackets gain antibacterial properties while remaining safe for eukaryotic cells. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 2023; 111:996-1004. [PMID: 36462180 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.b.35208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Revised: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
Abstract
The study's main objective is to limit bacterial biofilm formation on fixed orthodontic appliances. Bacterial biofilm formation on such devices (e.g., brackets) causes enamel demineralization, referred to as white spot lesions (WSL). WSL is significant health, social and economic problem. We provide a nanotechnology-based solution utilizing a nanocomposite of gold nanoparticles embedded in a polyoxoborate matrix (BOA: B-boron, O-oxygen, A-gold, Latin aurum). The nanocomposite is fully inorganic, and the coating protocol is straightforward, effective, and ecologically friendly (low waste and water-based). Prepared coatings are mechanically stable against brushing with a toothbrush (up to 100 min of brushing). Bacteria adhesion and antibacterial properties are tested against Streptococcus mutans-common bacteria in the oral cavity. BOA reduces the adhesion of bacteria by around 78%, that is, from around 7.99 × 105 ± 1.33 × 105 CFU per bracket to 1.69 × 105 ± 3.07 × 104 CFU per bracket of S. mutans detached from unmodified and modified brackets, respectively. Modified fixed orthodontic brackets remain safe for eukaryotic cells and meet ISO 10993-5:2009 requirements for medical devices. The gathered data show that BOA deposited on orthodontic appliances provides a viable preventive measure against bacteria colonization, which presents frequent and significant complications of orthodontic treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Bartłomiej Bończak
- Department of Physical Chemistry of Biological Systems, Institute of Physical Chemistry Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Izabela Krzymińska
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Microbiological Technologies, Turek, Poland
| | - Konrad Giżyński
- Department of Physical Chemistry of Biological Systems, Institute of Physical Chemistry Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Jan Paczesny
- Department of Physical Chemistry of Biological Systems, Institute of Physical Chemistry Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
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