Exceptional Changes in Skeletal Anatomy under Domestication: The Case of Brachycephaly

"Brachycephaly" is generally considered a phenotype in which the facial part of the head is pronouncedly shortened. While brachycephaly is characteristic for some domestic varieties and breeds (e.g., Bulldog, Persian cat, Niata cattle, Anglo-Nubian goat, Middle White pig), this phenotype can also be considered pathological. Despite the superficially similar appearance of "brachycephaly" in such varieties and breeds, closer examination reveals that "brachycephaly" includes a variety of different cranial modifications with likely different genetic and developmental underpinnings and related with specific breed histories. We review the various definitions and characteristics associated with brachycephaly in different domesticated species. We discern different types of brachycephaly ("bulldog-type," "katantognathic," and "allometric" brachycephaly) and discuss morphological conditions related to brachycephaly, including diseases (e.g., brachycephalic airway obstructive syndrome). Further, we examine the complex underlying genetic and developmental processes and the culturally and developmentally related reasons why brachycephalic varieties may or may not be prevalent in certain domesticated species. Knowledge on patterns and mechanisms associated with brachycephaly is relevant for domestication research, veterinary and human medicine, as well as evolutionary biology, and highlights the profound influence of artificial selection by humans on animal morphology, evolution, and welfare.

Genetically encoded fluorophenylalanines enable insights into the recognition of lysine trimethylation by an epigenetic reader

Fluorophenylalanines bearing 2-5 fluorine atoms at the phenyl ring have been genetically encoded by amber codon. Replacement of F59, a phenylalanine residue that is directly involved in interactions with trimethylated K9 of histone H3, in the Mpp8 chromodomain recombinantly with fluorophenylalanines significantly impairs the binding to a K9-trimethylated H3 peptide.

The Relationship between Brachycephalic Head Features in Modern Persian Cats and Dysmorphologies of the Skull and Internal Hydrocephalus

Background

Cat breeders observed a frequent occurrence of internal hydrocephalus in Persian cats with extreme brachycephalic head morphology.

Objective

To investigate a possible relationship among the grade of brachycephaly, ventricular dilatation, and skull dysmorphologies in Persian cats.

Animals

92 Persian‐, 10 Domestic shorthair cats.

Methods

The grade of brachycephaly was determined on skull models based on CT datasets. Cranial measurements were examined with regard to a possible correlation with relative ventricular volume, and cranial capacity. Persians with high (peke‐face Persians) and lower grades of brachycephaly (doll‐face Persians) were investigated for the presence of skull dysmorphologies.

Results

The mean cranial index of the peke‐face Persians (0.97 ± 0.14) was significantly higher than the mean cranial index of doll‐face Persians (0.66 ± 0.04; P < 0.001). Peke‐face Persians had a lower relative nasal bone length (0.15 ± 0.04) compared to doll‐face (0.29 ± 0.08; P < 0.001). The endocranial volume was significantly lower in doll‐face than peke‐face Persians (89.6 ± 1.27% versus 91.76 ± 2.07%; P < 0.001). The cranial index was significantly correlated with this variable (Spearman's r: 0.7; P < 0.0001). Mean ventricle: Brain ratio of the peke‐face group (0.159 ± 0.14) was significantly higher compared to doll‐face Persians (0.015 ± 0.01; P < 0.001).

Conclusion and Clinical Relevance

High grades of brachycephaly are also associated with malformations of the calvarial and facial bones as well as dental malformations. As these dysmorphologies can affect animal welfare, the selection for extreme forms of brachycephaly in Persian cats should be reconsidered.

Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (NCL) is caused by the entire deletion of CLN8 in the Alpenländische Dachsbracke dog

Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs) are inherited lysosomal storage diseases that have been described in a variety of dog breeds, where they are caused by different mutations in different genes. However, the causative gene defect in the breed Alpenländische Dachsbracke remained unknown so far. Here we present two confirmed cases of NCL in Alpenländische Dachsbracke dogs from different litters of the same sire with a different dam harboring the same underlying novel mutation in the CLN8 gene. Case 1, a 2-year-old male Alpenländische Dachsbracke was presented with neurological signs including disorientation, character changes including anxiety states and aggressiveness, sudden blindness and reduction of food intake. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans showed cerebral atrophy with dilation of all cerebral ventricles, thinning of the intermediate mass of the thalamus and widening of the cerebral sulci. Postmortem examination of the central nervous system (CNS) showed neuronal loss in the cerebral cortex, cerebellum and spinal cord with massive intracellular deposits of ceroid pigment. Additional ceroid-lipofuscin deposits were observed in the enteric nervous system and in macrophages within spleen, lymph nodes and lung. Ultrastructural analyses confirmed NCL with the presence of osmiophilic membrane bounded lamellar-like structures. Case 2, a 1,5-year old female Alpenländische Dachsbracke was presented with progressive generalized forebrain disease including mental changes such as fearful reactions to various kinds of external stimuli and disorientation. The dog also displayed seizures, absence of menace reactions and negative cotton-ball test with normal pupillary light reactions. The clinical and post mortem examination yielded similar results in the brain as in Case 1. Whole genome sequencing of Case 1 and PCR results of both cases revealed a homozygous deletion encompassing the entire CLN8 gene as the most likely causative mutation for the NCL form observed in both cases. The deletion follows recessive inheritance since the dam and a healthy male littermate of Case 1 were tested as heterozygous carriers. This is the first detailed description of CLN8 gene associated NCL in Alpenländische Dachsbracke dogs and thus provides a novel canine CLN8 model for this lysosomal storage disease. The presence of ceroid lipofuscin in extracerebral tissues may help to confirm the diagnosis of NCL in vivo, especially in new dog breeds where the underlying mutation is not known.

Site-directed spin labeling of proteins for distance measurements in vitro and in cells

We here review strategies for site-directed spin labeling (SDSL) of proteins and discuss their potential for EPR distance measurements to study protein function in vitro and in cells.

[Central pattern generators in the spinal cord of the cat and their relevance in rehabilitation after spinal lesion]

The ability of the spinal cord to recover after partial or complete transection, and even reinitiate motor function, was investigated in several studies in cats. It has been shown that even after a complete spinalisation at the level of T12/T13, the possibility of restoration of hind-limb function is good. Central pattern generators (CPGs), located in the spinal cord, play an important role in this situation. Although CPGs alone are unable to restore function, the combination of CPGs with targeted and consistent mobility training and, in some cases, hind-limb sensory stimulation is essential to improve function. These result in a reorganisation of the CPGs and neuronal networks in the spinal cord. The age of the animal at the time of injury and the extent and localisation of lesions, play a crucial role in recovery. A new focus of research is the influence of neurotransmitters/neuromodulators on spinal-cord regeneration. How and to what extent these factors support locomotor training remains for further clinical investigation.

Genetically Encoded Spin Labels for In Vitro and In-Cell EPR Studies of Native Proteins

Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy in combination with site-directed spin labeling (SDSL) is a powerful approach to study the structure, dynamics, and interactions of proteins. The genetic encoding of the noncanonical amino acid spin-labeled lysine 1 (SLK-1) eliminates the need for any chemical labeling steps in SDSL-EPR studies and enables the investigation of native, endogenous proteins with minimal structural perturbation, and without the need to create unique reactive sites for chemical labeling. We report detailed experimental procedures for the efficient synthesis of SLK-1, the expression and purification of SLK-1-containing proteins under conditions that ensure maximal integrity of the nitroxide radical moiety, and procedures for intramolecular EPR distance measurements in proteins by double electron-electron resonance.

Metastasizing Esthesioneuroblastoma in a Dog

A 7-year-old Afghan hound presented with a history of disorientation, loss of vision, and seizures. Magnetic resonance imaging helped identify a mass at the level of the main olfactory bulb that compressed and displaced adjacent tissues in the cribriform plate into the nasal cavity and nasopharynx. Bony structures were osteolytic. After removing almost 80% of the mass, the tumor recurred a few months later. Due to severe respiratory distress and subsequent to an ultrasound diagnosis of a liver tumor, the dog was euthanized. In addition to the nasal mass, a single nodule in the liver and multiple nodules in the lung were present. All masses had similar cell morphology and were diagnosed as metastasizing esthesioneuroblastoma. The neoplastic cells expressed neuron-specific enolase and chromogranin A, and a few cells within the nasal mass were positive for cytokeratin. This is the first description of a canine esthesioneuroblastoma with distant metastases.

[Focal meningitis in a California sea lion (Zalophus californianus)--diagnostic procedure and pathology]

A 15-year-old female California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) with progressive lameness of the hindlimbs and a chronic skin lesion was presented for clinical examination. The clinical neurological examination, showing a paraparesis, was completed by magnetic resonance imaging. MR images of the cervical and thoracic spine showed a well-defined muscle infiltrating lesion between the seventh cervical vertebra (C7) and the second thoracic vertebra (T2), which extended through the intervertebral foramina between C7 and T1 into the vertebral canal, causing spinal cord compression and displacement. Pathological examination revealed focal purulent meningitis resulting from widespread fistulas of the chronic skin leasion, which was infected with Escherichia coli var. haemolytica and Clostridium perfringens.

Female-to-male sex pheromones of low volatility in the Asian elephant,Elephas maximus

In their natural ecosystems, the sexes of Asian elephants,Elephas maximus, live separately. For several weeks prior to ovulation, the urine and cervical mucus of female Asian elephants contain extractable chemical agents of low volatility that elicit a high frequency of flehmen responses from bull elephants as an integral part of mating. Subsequent to flehmen responses, male sexual arousal occurs and, if the female is available, mating results. During the course of our project to determine the agent(s) and describe the responses associated with female to male sexual communication, we have identified an unusual compound. This compound, apparently the sole component of the active fraction, was identified by mass, proton nuclear magnetic resonance, ultraviolet/visible, and infrared spectrometries as indolo-[2,1-b] quinazoline-6,12-dione (tryptanthrine). Exhaustive and repetitive bioassays established that pure authentic (synthetic) tryptanthrine was not the compound responsible for the bioresponse. Rather a coeluting minor component, also of low volatility, elicited the male bioresponse.

A potential role for substance P and interleukin-6 in the cerebrospinal fluid of Cavalier King Charles Spaniels with neuropathic pain

BACKGROUND

Neuropathic pain can be a clinical sign in Cavalier King Charles Spaniels (CKCS) with syringomyelia. The pathophysiology of this pain is not fully understood.

HYPOTHESIS

Neuropathic pain in CKCS is a result of a neuroinflammatory process.

ANIMALS

Twenty-six client-owned dogs: 15 dogs with clinical signs of cervical hyperesthesia (group 1), and 11 dogs without of clinical signs (group 2).

METHODS

Dogs were examined by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and substance P were measured in CSF and compared with morphological findings on MRI and clinical pain scores.

RESULTS

All dogs without clinical signs had symmetrical syringomyelia, whereas in the group with pain, 6 dogs had symmetrical and 9 dogs had asymmetrical syringomyelia. Pain and syringomyelia asymmetry were correlated, and a strong association between pain and dorsal horn involvement of syringomyelia was observed. There was no significant difference between the mean width of the syringomyelia in dogs with or without pain. The concentrations of interleukin-6 and substance P were significantly higher in dogs with neuropathic pain. Tumor necrosis factor alpha was not detected in either group. Concentrations of substance P were significantly higher in dogs with asymmetrical syringomyelia or dorsal horn involvement, whereas interleukin-6 concentrations were not significantly different between groups.

CONCLUSION

Release of interleukin-6 and substance P may initiate proinflammatory effects leading to development of persistent pain in CKCSs with syringomyelia.

Unilateral cerebellar hypoplasia and mesencephalic malformation in a Hanoverian foal

Neurological cases, especially in foals, are rare in the daily practical work. The most common causes are traumata and infectious diseases of the central nervous system (CNS). This case report provides further insights into the wide spectrum of possible neuropathological lesions by detailing a complex malformation with unilateral neurological signs that occurred later post natum. Thus, clinicians should also be aware of malformations in case of respective neurological patients. A Hanoverian foal was presented with progressive ataxia. General and blood examination revealed no further alterations. By neurologic examination, a unilateral hypermetria was diagnosed and a cysternography of the head was performed. A cerebellar malformation was assumed and the foal was euthanized due to poor prognosis. At necropsy, a unilateral absence of a cerebellar hemisphere and vermis accompanied by contralateral malformation of the mesencephalon was diagnosed. The missing areas of the right cerebellar hemisphere were replaced by a cystic formation. The left part of the mesencephalic lamina quadrigemina was reduced in size and the corpus callosum was hypoplastic. Additional microscopical findings were most obvious near the cyst formation and included angiofibrosis in remaining cerebellar and mesencephalic parenchyma and leptomeninges, heterotopia of cerebellar neurons, sclerosis in cerebellar cortex, focal proliferation of meningeal cells and mild mononuclear perivascular infiltrates. Occassional irregular neuronal arrangement in the mesencephalon was also present. Infectious agents such as Borna disease virus, rabies virus, and equine herpesvirus were not detected. Therefore, the complex malformation in this foal might have been caused by a destructive, possibly ischemic event, or could represent a sequel of a primary retrocerebellar cyst with accompanying compression of adjacent parenchyma.

Co-occurrence of an intraventricular meningioma and cholesterol granuloma of the choroid plexus in a cat

A 12-year-old domestic shorthair cat was presented with neurologic signs localized to the forebrain. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain revealed a space occupying lesion within the third and the lateral ventricles. The lesion had areas of disparate signal characteristics and exerted a mass effect on the surrounding parenchyma and ventricular system. The histologic examination identified the co-existence of two intraventricular masses: a meningioma and a choroid plexus cholesterol granuloma.

Unilateral cerebellar hypoplasia and mesencephalic malformation in a Hanoverian foal

Neurological cases, especially in foals, are rare in the daily practical work. The most common causes are traumata and infectious diseases of the central nervous system (CNS). This case report provides further insights into the wide spectrum of possible neuropathological lesions by detailing a complex malformation with unilateral neurological signs that occurred later post natum. Thus, clinicians should also be aware of malformations in case of respective neurological patients. A Hanoverian foal was presented with progressive ataxia. General and blood examination revealed no further alterations. By neurologic examination, a unilateral hypermetria was diagnosed and a cysternography of the head was performed. A cerebellar malformation was assumed and the foal was euthanized due to poor prognosis. At necropsy, a unilateral absence of a cerebellar hemisphere and vermis accompanied by contralateral malformation of the mesencephalon was diagnosed. The missing areas of the right cerebellar hemisphere were replaced by a cystic formation. The left part of the mesencephalic lamina quadrigemina was reduced in size and the corpus callosum was hypoplastic. Additional microscopical findings were most obvious near the cyst formation and included angiofibrosis in remaining cerebellar and mesencephalic parenchyma and leptomeninges, heterotopia of cerebellar neurons, sclerosis in cerebellar cortex, focal proliferation of meningeal cells and mild mononuclear perivascular infiltrates. Occassional irregular neuronal arrangement in the mesencephalon was also present. Infectious agents such as Borna disease virus, rabies virus, and equine herpesvirus were not detected. Therefore, the complex malformation in this foal might have been caused by a destructive, possibly ischemic event, or could represent a sequel of a primary retrocerebellar cyst with accompanying compression of adjacent parenchyma.

Co-occurrence of an intraventricular meningioma and cholesterol granuloma of the choroid plexus in a cat

A 12-year-old domestic shorthair cat was presented with neurologic signs localized to the forebrain. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain revealed a space occupying lesion within the third and the lateral ventricles. The lesion had areas of disparate signal characteristics and exerted a mass effect on the surrounding parenchyma and ventricular system. The histologic examination identified the co-existence of two intraventricular masses: a meningioma and a choroid plexus cholesterol granuloma.

Comparison of the relative occipital bone volume between Cavalier King Charles spaniels with and without syringohydromyelia and French bulldogs

Our aim was to determine the relative volume of the occipital bone of Cavalier King Charles spaniels with and without syringohydromyelia and normal French bulldogs to reappraise the role of a possible insufficiency of the paraxial mesoderm in the pathogenesis of the caudal occipital malformation syndrome. Analysis of the occipital bone volume of 43 dogs based on computed tomography datasets was performed. Volume was determined by means of three-dimensional models. Using manual segmentation of the occipital bone in sagittal, transverse, and dorsal images, the volume of the occipital bone and the rest of the skull was calculated. The absolute occipital bone volume was put in relation to the total skull volume, the occipital bone index. For the Cavalier King Charles spaniels without syringomyelia, the median occipital bone index was 0.0681; for Cavalier King Charles spaniels with syringomyelia, it was 0.0646 and for French bulldogs, it was 0.0676. There was no global difference of the occipital bone index between examined groups (P = 0.4331). A reduced volume of the occipital bone was not found in Cavalier King Charles spaniels in general in comparison to French bulldogs, or in Cavalier King Charles spaniels with syringomyelia compared to Cavalier King Charles spaniels without syringomyelia. These results do not support occipital hypoplasia as a cause for syringomyelia development, challenging the paraxial mesoderm insufficiency theory. This also suggests that the term Chiari-like malformation, a term derived from human studies, is not appropriate in the Cavalier King Charles spaniel.

Cephalometric measurements and determination of general skull type of Cavalier King Charles Spaniels

The general skull morphology of the head of the Cavalier King Charles Spaniel (CKCS) was examined and compared with cephalometric indices of brachycephalic, mesaticephalic, and dolichocephalic heads. Measurements were taken from computed tomography images. Defined landmarks for linear measurements of were identified using three-dimensional (3D) models. The calculated parameters of the CKCS were different from all parameters of mesaticephalic dogs but were the same as parameters from brachycephalic dogs. However, the CKCS had a wider braincase in relation to length than in other brachycephalic breeds. Studies of the etiology of the chiari-like malformation in the CKCS should therefore focus on brachycephalic control groups. As Chari-like malformation has only been reported in brachycephalic breeds, its etiology could be associated with a higher grade of brachycephaly, meaning a shorter longitudinal extension of the skull. This has been suggested for other breeds.

A study of the comparative anatomy of the brain of domestic ruminants using magnetic resonance imaging

Although magnetic resonance imaging has been used to examine the brain of domestic ruminants, detailed information relating the precise anatomical features in these species is lacking. In this study the brain structures of calves (Bos taurus domesticus), sheep (Ovis aries), goats (Capra hircus) and a mesaticephalic dog (Canis lupis familiaris) were examined using T2-weighed Turbo Spin Echo sequences; three-dimensional models based on high-resolution gradient echo scans were used to identify brain sulci and gyri in two-dimensional images. The ruminant brains examined were similar in structure and organisation to those of other mammals but particular features included the deep depression of the insula and the pronounced gyri of the cortices, the dominant position of the visual (optic nerve, optic chiasm and rostral colliculus) and olfactory (olfactory bulb, olfactory tracts and piriform lobe) systems, and the relatively large size of the diencephalon.

[Intraoperative sonography for examination of intervertebral disk extrusion in the dog]

OBJECTIVE

It has been shown that the components of the vertebral canal (dura mater, pia mater, subarachnoid space, spinal cord parenchyma and central canal) can be visualized intraoperatively with the help of ultrasonography. This study was conducted to document the intraoperative sonographical findings of disc extrusion and to determine imaging criteria for the localisation of the extrusion and the consecutive changes of the spinal cord parenchyma.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

43 dogs of different breeds with a diagnosed disc extrusion were sonographically examined immediately after establishing the surgical decompression (hemilaminectomy, laminectomy, ventral slot) (examination 1) and again after removal of disc material (examination 2).

RESULTS

In all 34 patients the extruded disc material could be imaged sonographically appearing as inhomogenous, hyperechoic areas of moderate echogenicity. There was a distal shadowing dependent on the grade of calcification in 53% of the patients in examination 1 and in 79% at examination 2. Furthermore, a tendency towards a central localisation of the disc prolapse (67.6% in examination 1 and 57.1% examination 2) was observed. Intraoperative identification of disc extrusion could be accomplished in 79% of the cases. Intraoperative haemorrhage highly significantly impaired the assessment of the spinal cord (p<0.0001).

CONCLUSION

Intraoperative spinal ultrasonography using a linear probe with a frequency from 5 to 10 MHz is a valuable tool for the visualization of spinal structures. It provides information for intraspinal navigation and evaluation of the extent of spinal lesions as well as the state of decompression. Bleeding has a negative influence on the visualization of the spinal canal.

Universality class of replica symmetry breaking, scaling behavior, and the low-temperature fixed-point order function of the Sherrington-Kirkpatrick model

A scaling theory of replica symmetry breaking (RSB) in the Sherrington-Kirkpatrick (SK) model is presented in the framework of critical phenomena for the scaling regime of large RSB orders kappa , small temperatures T , and small (homogeneous) magnetic fields H . We employ the pseudodynamical picture [R. Oppermann, M. J. Schmidt, and D. Sherrington, Phys. Rev. Lett. 98, 127201 (2007)], where two critical points CP1 and CP2 are associated with the order function's pseudodynamical limits lim_{a-->infinity}q(a)=1 and lim_{a-->0}q(a)=0 at (T=0 , H=0 , 1kappa=0) . CP1 - and CP2 -dominated contributions to the free energy functional F[q(a)] require an unconventional scaling hypothesis. We determine the scaling contributions in accordance with detailed numerical self-consistent solutions for up to 200 orders of RSB. Power laws, scaling functions, and crossover lines are obtained. CP1 -dominated behavior is found for the nonequilibrium susceptibility, which decays like chi_{1}=kappa;{-53}f_{1}(Tkappa;{-53}) , for the entropy, which obeys S(T=0) approximately chi_{1};{2} , and for the subclass of diverging parameters a_{i}=kappa;{53}f_{a_{i}}(Tkappa;{-53}) [describing Parisi box sizes m_{i}(T) identical witha_{i}(T)T ], with f_{1}(zeta) approximately zeta and f_{a_{i}}(zeta) approximately 1zeta for zeta-->infinity , while f(0) is finite. CP2 -dominated behavior, controlled by the magnetic field H while temperature is irrelevant, is retrieved in the plateau height (or width) of the order function q(a) according to q_{pl}(H)=kappa;{-1}f_{pl}(H;{23}kappa;{-1}) with f_{pl}mid R:(zeta)mid R:_{zeta-->infinity} approximately zeta and f_{pl}(0) finite. Divergent characteristic RSB orders kappa_{CP1}(T) approximately T;{-35} and kappa_{CP2}(H) approximately H;{-23} , respectively, describe the crossover from mean field SK- to RSB-critical behavior with rational-valued exponents extracted with high precision from our RSB data. The order function q(a) is obtained as a fixed-point function q(a) of RSB flow, in agreement with integrated fixed-point energy and susceptibility distributions.

Control of magnetic anisotropy in (Ga,Mn)as by lithography-induced strain relaxation

We report control of magnetic anisotropy in epitaxial (Ga,Mn)As by anisotropic strain relaxation in patterned structures. The strain in the structures is characterized using reciprocal space mapping by x-ray techniques. The magnetic anisotropy before patterning of the layer, which shows biaxial easy axes along [100] and [010], is replaced by a hard axis in the direction of large elastic strain relaxation and a uniaxial easy axis in the direction where pseudomorphic conditions are retained.

Double criticality of the Sherrington-Kirkpatrick model at T=0

Numerical results up to the 42nd order of replica-symmetry breaking (RSB) are used to predict the singular structure of the Sherrington-Kirkpatrick spin glass at T=0. We confirm predominant single parameter scaling and derive corrections for the T=0 order function q(a), related to a Langevin equation with pseudotime 1/a. a=0 and a=infinity are shown to be two critical points for infinity-RSB, associated with two discrete spectra of Parisi block size ratios, attached to a continuous spectrum. Finite-RSB-size scaling, associated exponents, and T=0-energy are obtained with unprecedented accuracy.

Magnetization-switched metal-insulator transition in a (Ga,Mn)as tunnel device

We observe the occurrence of an Efros-Shklovskii gap in (Ga,Mn)As based tunnel junctions. The occurrence of the gap is controlled by the extent of the hole wave function on the Mn acceptor atoms. Using k.p-type calculations we show that this extent depends crucially on the direction of the magnetization in the (Ga,Mn)As (which has two almost equivalent easy axes). This implies one can reversibly tune the system into the insulating or metallic state by changing the magnetization.

Evaluation of sperm acrosome reaction in the Asiatic elephant

This study focuses on the effect of chemicals on acrosome reaction in elephant spermatozoa. Semen was collected at the Washington Park Zoo in Portland, Oregon, from an 11-yr-old Asian elephant by artificial vagina (7 ejaculates) and transported to Mahidol University in Bangkok in extender at 4 to 5 degrees C within 24 to 28 h. A total of 500 x 10(6) sperm/mL was used for the control and for each of the 4 treatment groups: 1) cAMP (0.1 mM); 2) caffeine (0.1 mM); 3) Penicillamine hypotaurine and epinephine, PHE (penicillamine 2 mM, hypotaurine 1 mM, epinephine 1 mM); and 4) heparin (10 microg/mL) at 39 degrees C for 2 h. Aliquots were removed and the sperm viability, abnormal morphology, and acrosome status were evaluated by triple stain technique. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used to observe changes of the sperm head membrane in all treatment groups. Trypan blue reliably stained dead spermatozoa, while rose Bengal stained only the spermatozoa with intact acrosomes. The concentration of dead sperm cells was similar in the 4 groups. The percentages of live acrosome-reacted spermatozoa in the control and in groups treated with caffeine, PHE, cAMP and heparin were 19.5 +/- 4.3, 38.1 +/- 4.0, 34.8 +/- 3.7, 29.8 +/- 0.8 and 28.0 +/- 4.2, respectively. The acrosome reaction rate was higher in the treatment groups than in the control (P<0.05). Caffeine and PHE caused significantly higher acrosome reaction of the sperm head than cAMP or heparin (P<0.05). The electron micrographs showed that the acrosome reaction occurred by the presence of apical vesiculation. The results indicated that 1) the triple stain technique allowed for evaluation of both viability and acrosome reaction simultaneously in elephant spermatozoa,2) acrosome reaction occurred at a high rate in all 3 treatment groups. 3) the effects of caffeine and PHE were significantly higher (P<0.05) than of cAMP and heparin, and 4) the data obtained from the triple stain technique corresponded to those from TEM.

[Fitness training during nasal ventilation in diseases limited by dyspnea]

METHODS

Five patients with chronic ventilatory failure demonstrated by arterial hyperkapnia and overloaded respiratory muscles under spontaneous ventilation (P01/P01 max) were adapted to passive noninvasive ventilation (ISB). Three of them suffered from severe COPD (FEV1 < 50%), two patients from severe restriction (VC < 30%). These patients had to undergo a bicycle ergometer exercise with and without nasal ventilation until they reached physical exhaustion with standardised incremental increase in external workload.

RESULTS

In both settings all patients were able to manage exercise up to their physical exhaustion. The anaerobic limit was exceeded each time. The total ventilation volume had to be increased two- to threefold during exercise with nasal ventilation to maintain the passive ventilation. The reduced load on the respiratory muscles was generally proven by lower pCO2 and higher pH levels. Without ventilation discontinuation of the exercise was caused by dyspnoea, whereas this was due to weakness in the legs under ventilation. In all five cases the achieved level of external workload was higher when supporting the respiratory muscles (43 watts vs. 36 watts) at lower lactate levels.

CONCLUSION

On a bicycle ergometer the respiratory muscles can be sufficiently relieved using noninvasive nasal ventilation. A higher level of workload, longer duration and a higher quality of exercise can be achieved thereby. The fact that patients without relief of load of the respiratory muscles complained of dyspnoea, whereas the fact that patients with ventilation complained of weakness in their legs indicates the high efficiency of this method, although the tested patients are severely handicapped individuals who usually do not undergo comparable physical exercise in their daily activities.

[The process of making laws]

This paper presents a simplified summary of the process to make laws. It starts from the juridical concepts, requirements needed, hierarchy of the Brazilian laws, the need to follow proper steps through channels and committees within the National Congress, quorum required until its final approval with the presidential sanction, when a project of law becomes an enacted law. The purpose is to help nurses and other interested people to participate in the development of their profession through laws which better fulfill the professional interests of the group.

Correlation of serum L-carnitine and dehydro-epiandrosterone sulphate levels with age and sex in healthy adults

OBJECTIVES

L-carnitine and dehydro-epiandrosterone (DHEA) independently promote mitochondrial energy metabolism. We therefore wondered if an age-related deficiency of L-carnitine or DHEA may account for the declining energy metabolism associated with age.

METHODS

we evaluated serum levels of L-carnitine and the sulphated derivative of DHEA (DHEAS) in cross-sectional study of 216 healthy adults, aged 20-95.

RESULTS

serum DHEAS levels declined, while total carnitine levels increased with age (P < 0.0001). Total and free carnitine and DHEAS levels were lower in women than men (P < 0.0001). Esterified/free (E/F) carnitine (inversely related to carnitine availability) increased with age in both sexes (P=0.012).

CONCLUSION

reduced carnitine availability correlates with the age-related decline of DHEAS levels. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that decreased energy metabolism with age relates to DHEAS levels and carnitine availability.

Effect of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate on carnitine acetyl transferase activity and L-carnitine levels in oophorectomized rats

Alteration in energy metabolism of postmenopausal women might be related to the reduction of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS). DHEA and DHEAS decline with age, leveling at their nadir near menopause. DHEA and DHEAS modulate fatty acid metabolism by regulating carnitine acyltransferases and CoA. The purpose of this study was to determine whether dietary supplementation with DHEAS would also increase tissue L-carnitine levels, carnitine acetyltransferase (CAT) activity and mitochondrial respiration in oophorectomized rats. Plasma L-carnitine levels rose following oophorectomy in all groups (P < 0.0001). Supplementation with DHEAS was not associated with further elevation of plasma L-carnitine levels, but with increased hepatic total and free L-carnitine (P = 0.021 and P < 0.0001, respectively) and cardiac total L-carnitine concentrations (P = 0.045). In addition, DHEAS supplementation increased both hepatic and cardiac CAT activities (P < 0.0001 and P = 0.05 respectively). CAT activity positively correlated with the total and free carnitine levels in both liver and heart (r = 0.764, r = 0.785 and r = 0.700, r = 0.519, respectively). Liver mitochondrial respiratory control ratio, ADP:O ratio and oxygen uptake were similar in both control and supplemented groups. These results demonstrate that in oophorectomized rats, dietary DHEAS supplementation increases the liver and heart L-carnitine levels and CAT activities. In conclusion, DHEAS may modulate L-carnitine level and CAT activity in estrogen deficient rats. The potential role of DHEAS in the regulation of fatty acid oxidation in postmenopausal women is worthy of investigation.

Consumers' healthcare rights in Brazil

In many countries the rights of patients and consumers of health services are gaining ground and becoming law. As elsewhere, consumers in Brazil are becoming increasingly knowledgeable and demanding respect for their rights. Yet many Brazilian health services--public and private--are still reluctant to accept public evaluation and criticism. But with Brazil's new consumer's code the stage is set for a more active role of patients in their health decisions and for nurses and health professionals to acquiesce to consumers' dissatisfaction and respond with improved professional performance.

Detection of Rochalimaea henselae DNA in specimens from cat scratch disease patients by PCR

A PCR assay was developed by using degenerate primers that allow amplification of a 414-bp fragment of DNA from the rickettsia-like organisms Rochalimaea henselae and R. quintana. Internal oligonucleotides were used as hybridization probes, permitting rapid differentiation of these two Rochalimaea species. DNAs from 12 different isolates of R. henselae were amplified with the PCR primers, and the resulting 414-bp PCR product hybridized only with the R. henselae-specific probe. DNAs from four different isolates of R. quintana were amplified and produced a PCR product of the same size that hybridized only with the R. quintana-specific probe. DNAs from isolates of R. elizabethae, R. vinsonii, Bartonella bacilliformis, and Afipia felis failed to amplify the 414-bp fragment in the PCR assay. This two-step assay was applied to DNAs extracted from 16 fresh (unfixed) lymph node biopsy specimens and nine aspirates from patients with clinical cat scratch disease (CSD) to assay for the presence of R. henselae or R. quintana DNA in these samples. Twenty-one (84%) of 25 lymph node samples from CSD patients were positive for R. henselae, while none were positive for R. quintana. The characteristic 414-bp fragment was not amplified from eight lymph node tissue samples from non-CSD cases. These results provide evidence that R. henselae, and not R. quintana, plays the central role in the etiology of CSD.

Serum concentrations of oestradiol and progesterone and frequency of sexual behaviour during the normal oestrous cycle in the snow leopard (Panthera uncia)

Serum oestradiol and progesterone concentrations were measured at weekly intervals for six months, and correlated with daily behavioural observations in two adult female snow leopards (Panthera uncia). Three oestradiol peaks (> 21 pg ml-1; interval 3.6 weeks) were identified in a snow leopardess housed alone (two more were probably missed because of the weekly sampling schedule), and three oestradiol peaks were identified in a snow leopardess housed with a male as a breeding pair (interval 6 weeks). Daily frequencies of feline reproductive behaviour averaged 1.77 observations per observation period during weeks of high oestradiol and 0.62 during weeks of low oestradiol. Progesterone concentrations did not rise above baseline values (< 2 ng ml-1) in the isolated animal, but 6 weeks of high progesterone concentrations (4.9-38.8 ng ml-1) was recorded in the paired snow leopardess following mating. No offspring were produced. Snow leopards were observed daily for an additional 4.5 years. Sexual behaviour peaks could be clearly identified from December through April, and average daily sexual behaviour scores were higher during these months than during the rest of the year. Intervals between sexual behaviour peaks for the isolated snow leopardess averaged 3.03 weeks. The sexual behaviour of the paired snow leopards decreased for 8-9 weeks following mating when no offspring were produced, and decreased for 13 weeks in one year when a single cub was born.

Myocardial L-carnitine deficiency in a family of dogs with dilated cardiomyopathy

Dilated cardiomyopathy in a family of dogs was found to be associated with decreased myocardial L-carnitine concentrations, when compared with those in control dogs. In 2 affected dogs, treatment with high doses of L-carnitine was associated with increased myocardial L-carnitine concentration and greatly improved health and myocardial function. Withdrawal of L-carnitine supplementation from these dogs resulted in development of myocardial dysfunction and clinical signs of dilated cardiomyopathy.

Further experience with division of the left renal vein

The left renal vein (LRV) has numerous tributaries including, but not limited to, the inferior phrenic, suprarenal, and gonadal veins. The resultant potential for collateral LRV outflow through these tributaries in instances of LRV division is obvious. One of us has previously reported 10 such cases of LRV division (close to its confluence with the inferior vena cava and without reanastomosis) for the purpose of facilitating proximal abdominal aortic exposure for reconstructive procedures. One of the 10 patients had moderate renal insufficiency at follow-up. We present herein an additional 19 patients who underwent LRV division predominantly for aneurysmal disease of the abdominal aorta. Sixteen patients were available for follow-up. Three patients died in the intraoperative and early postoperative periods. Multivariate analysis of variance of preoperative, postoperative, and follow-up laboratory data--serum creatinine and BUN--showed no significant change in renal function as assessed.

The effects of caffeine on the ultrastructure and mitochondrial function of the embryonic chick heart

Results from this study indicate that caffeine (at an embryotoxic dose equal to the LD40 administered to 3-day chick embryos produced both ultrastructural and functional abnormalities in embryonic cardiac mitochondria. The principal effects of caffeine on the ultrastructure of embryonic myocardial cells were clearly suggestive of cellular injury and included: (1) a marked disruption of mitochondrial cristae with formation of intramitochondrial myelin-like figures and (2) intracellular edema. A biochemical analysis of mitochondrial function revealed that caffeine inhibited the capacity of mitochondria to oxidize succinate. However, when pyruvate and malate were employed as substrates for isolated mitochondria, caffeine did not significantly alter mitochondrial function. Interference with embryonic cardiac mitochondrial succinate oxidation and/or fragmentation of mitochondrial membranes are suggested as possible events in the pathogenesis of caffeine-induced cardiac cell injury which, in turn, may lead to the embryonic death of the chick.

Serum concentrations of oestradiol and progesterone, and sexual behaviour during the normal oestrous cycle in the leopard (Panthera pardus)

Three mature nulliparous female leopards were studied for 5 years. During three separate 6-month periods serum oestradiol and progesterone concentrations were measured at weekly intervals. Oestradiol was elevated over 21 pg/ml for 54 weeks during these 3 periods, and 36 oestradiol peaks (65.8 +/- 6.3 pg/ml (mean +/- s.e.m.), range 21-172 pg/ml) were identified. Daily frequency of feline reproductive behaviours averaged over each week increased from 1.9 +/- 0.2 (n = 93) during weeks with low serum oestradiol concentrations (less than 21 pg/ml) to 5.3 +/- 0.6 (n = 54) during weeks when serum oestradiol concentrations (greater than 21 pg/ml) were high. Increased serum progesterone concentrations (13-98 n/gml) were observed on 5 occasions in 2 leopards housed together. These presumptive luteal phases lasted from 1 to 5 weeks. Baseline progesterone values were 1.6 +/- 0.4 ng/ml (n = 131). No progesterone increments were observed in isolated animals, and serum concentrations remained at baseline levels. These limited observations suggest that female leopards do not require intromission to induce ovulation and luteal function. The average interval between oestradiol peaks for cycles with no progesterone increment was 3.4 weeks (range 1-6 weeks). The interval for the 3 complete cycles associated with elevated progesterone concentrations was 7.3 weeks. Analysis of sexual behaviours over the 5-year study period revealed no evidence of seasonality in these captive leopards.

High-performance liquid chromatography of coenzyme A esters formed by transesterification of short-chain acylcarnitines: diagnosis of acidemias by urinary analysis

A protocol for the identification and estimation of short-chain esters of carnitine is described; it is useful for the diagnosis of acidemias. By this method, carnitine esters in urine are converted to coenzyme A esters enzymatically with carnitine acetyltransferase (CAT): short-chain acylcarnitine + CoA cat in equilibrium short-chain acyl-CoA + carnitine. The coenzyme A esters are separated by high-performance liquid chromatography using a radial compression system with a C8 Radial-Pak cartridge and a mobile phase containing 0.025 M tetraethylammonium phosphate in a linear gradient of 1 to 50% methanol. Coenzyme A esters are quantitated by integrator determination of the area under the 254-nm absorption peaks. Enzymatic conversion approaches 100% for acetyl and propionyl esters except in the presence of high levels of free carnitine, which lowers the proportion of ester as acyl-CoA at equilibrium. However, since acidemia patients produce urine low in free carnitine, this problem is minimized. The method is rapid and simple and identifies propionic, methylmalonic, and isovaleric acidemias.

LY83583: an agent that lowers intracellular levels of cyclic guanosine 3',5'-monophosphate

A novel compound, LY83583 (6-anilino-5,8-quinolinedione), was found to lower basal levels of cyclic GMP (cGMP) in fragments of guinea-pig lung incubated in vitro. The lowering of cGMP was dose-related reaching a maximum of 72% at 5 X 10(-5) M. Basal levels of cyclic AMP (cAMP) were not lowered by LY83583. cGMP concentrations were also reduced in guinea-pig heart and cerebellum after incubation with LY83583. However, the drug did not alter the levels of this cyclic nucleotide in spleen. Exposure of lung fragments from sensitized guinea pigs to ovalbumin resulted in a marked increase in cGMP and cAMP. LY83583 prevented completely the accumulation of cGMP and attenuated the rise in cAMP. Similar results were obtained in rat cerebellum stimulated with kainic acid. The compound also blocked ovalbumin-induced release of slow reacting substance of anaphylaxis (leukotrienes) from guinea-pig lung. Subcutaneous administration of LY83583 to guinea pigs did not affect cGMP concentrations in vivo in lung, but the total amount of cGMP in spleen was reduced dramatically. This was accompanied by a marked splenomegaly. LY83585 did not inhibit lung guanylate cyclase. In fact, activity was increased in a cell-free preparation from guinea-pig lung. The mechanism by which LY83583 reduced concentrations of cGMP is presently unknown. Nevertheless, our studies suggest that LY83583 will be a valuable pharmacological tool to help elucidate the role of cGMP in biological events.

Metabolic and physiological differences between zero-flow and low-flow myocardial ischemia: effects of L-acetylcarnitine

The metabolic and physiologic differences between low-flow and zero-flow ischemia of varying duration were compared in the isolated perfused rat heart. Hearts subjected to 60 and 90 minutes of zero-flow ischemia recovered less cardiac work than hearts subjected to low-flow ischemia. Low-flow ischemia caused a build-up of both myocardial long-chain acyl coenzyme A and acyl carnitine esters, while zero-flow ischemia produced no change in long-chain acyl carnitine and only a transient increase in long-chain acyl coenzyme A. High energy phosphate depletion was greater in zero-flow ischemia. Perfusion with excess free fatty acids decreased the recovery of cardiac work after low-flow ischemia but had no effect after repeated episodes of zero-flow ischemia. L-Acetylcarnitine improved the recovery of cardiac work after low-flow ischemia in hearts perfused with 0.4 and 1.2 mM palmitate. With zero-flow ischemia, L-acetylcarnitine had no effect on the recovery of cardiac work in hearts perfused with 0.4 mM palmitate and a slight but statistically significant effect with 1.2 mM palmitate. Possible protective mechanisms of L-acetylcarnitine against ischemic damage are discussed.

Pharmacologic analysis of two novel inhibitors of leukotriene (slow reacting substance) release

LY83583 , a quinolinedione , and LY151364 , a quinoxalinedione , were developed as inhibitors of leukotriene (slow reacting substance of anaphylaxis) release. They preferentially inhibited the release of leukotrienes over histamine from fragmented guinea-pig lung and rat peritoneal cells in vitro, regardless of whether the mediators were released immunologically by antigen or chemically by the divalent cationic ionophore, A23187. Similar results were obtained with rat peritoneal cells in vivo. In that system, comparison of LY83583 with disodium cromoglycate showed the former to preferentially inhibit release of leukotrienes, whereas the latter favored inhibition of histamine release. LY83583 did not significantly decrease antigen-induced bronchospasm in guinea pigs after i.v. administration of doses that approached toxic levels. In addition, LY83583 did not antagonize contractions to carbachol or histamine on guinea-pig trachea, prostaglandin F2 alpha-elicited contraction on guinea-pig ileum or contractions produced by serotonin on guinea-pig aorta. This agent, at 1 X 10(-5) M, reduced the maximal responses to bradykinin on ileum and caused a rightward displacement with a reduction in the maximal response to norepinephrine on guinea-pig aorta. In summary, LY83583 and LY151364 have interesting pharmacologic profiles which make them useful as tools in understanding the role of the leukotrienes in isolated tissue systems.

Improvement of myocardial function in diabetic rats after treatment with L-carnitine

The effects of L-carnitine administration on the severity of diabetes were investigated. Serum glucose, free fatty acids (FFA), triglycerides, and ketones from diabetic and normal rats injected for 2 weeks with 3 g/kg/d of either L-carnitine or saline were assayed. Hearts were analyzed for carnitine and long-chain acyl coenzyme A. L-carnitine treatment to diabetic rats significantly reduced serum glucose, FFA, triglycerides, and ketones. In nondiabetic rats, carnitine increased serum ketones while FFA and triglycerides were decreased. L-carnitine treatment to diabetic rats prevented a decrease in myocardial total carnitine content. Long-chain acyl carnitine increased while long-chain acyl coenzyme A decreased. In another experiment, L-carnitine administration (750 mg/kg/d for 14 days) significantly improved the recovery of cardiac output after 60, 90, and 120 minutes of ischemia in diabetic perfused hearts. These results suggest that L-carnitine therapy may reduce the severity of diabetes mellitus and improve myocardial performance.

Testosterone and dihydrotestosterone concentrations in elephant serum and temporal gland secretions

Serum and temporal gland secretions (TGS) were obtained from mature wild African (Loxodonta africana) and captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Samples were obtained from five cows and eight bulls culled for management purposes in Kruger National Park, South Africa, and from four females and two males residing at the Washington Park Zoo, Portland, Oregon. Our purpose was to describe the levels of the androgens, testosterone (T), and dihydrotestosterone (DHT), and to correlate these observations with sex, species and behavioral status. Male-female differences in serum T were pronounced in the Asian species, whereas male and female concentrations overlapped in the African elephant serum. Serum T concentrations in African females were greater than in Asian females. Serum DHT reflected T levels, except that the striking elevation of testosterone in Asian bulls during musth was not paralleled by equal increases in DHT levels. A species difference observed among males was higher serum T levels in nonmusth Asian bulls (1.84-5.35 ng/ml) compared to the levels in African bulls (0.38-0.68 ng/ml), except for one dominant African bull (6.64 ng/ml). This single African value was still considerably lower than the serum T values of the Asian males during musth. These musth values were the highest serum androgen concentrations: T was between 19 and 40 ng/ml (average 26.10 ng/ml). The TSG values of T and DHT were much higher than serum levels except in the Asian female. T/DHT ratios in TGS were more similar than in serum. One dominant African bull had a T TGS value of 78 ng/ml, which was much higher than the rest of the African males or females, but considerably lower than as Asian bull in musth (547 ng/ml). It seems apparent that a change in androgen status as reflected in serum and TGS levels of T and DHT precedes or is concomitant with overt alteration in behavior in the Asian male. The temporal gland appears to actively concentrate androgens in both African males and females, but in the Asian male the gland secretes only during musth when the greatest concentration of both T and DHT were observed. The apparent difference in the degree of temporal gland secretory activity between the two species suggests a more specific communicative function within the Asian male.