Serum levels of interleukin-33 and mesencephalic astrocyte derived neurotrophic factors in patients with major depressive disorder: a cross-sectional comparative design

BACKGROUND

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a debilitating health condition that has significant morbidity and mortality rates. Depression can be caused due to social, biological, environmental, psychological, and genetic factors. A few biological processes have been proposed as the pathophysiological pathways of depression. Neurotrophic factors and inflammatory cytokines have been linked to depression. Thus, we aimed to investigate the serum interleukin-33 (IL-33) and mesencephalic astrocyte-derived neurotrophic factor (MANF) in MDD patients and corresponding healthy controls (HCs).

METHOD

This study involved the inclusion of 129 MDD patients and 125 HCs matched by sex and age. A psychiatrist evaluated the study participants following DSM-5 criteria. The severity of the illness was assessed utilizing the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (Ham-D). The serum concentrations of IL-33 and MANF were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits.

RESULTS

The mean serum levels of IL-33 were decreased (159.12 ± 6.07 pg/ml vs. 180.60 ± 8.64 pg/ml, p = 0.042), and the MANF levels were increased (5.40 ± 0.19 ng/ml vs. 4.46 ± 0.21 ng/ml, p = 0.001) in MDD patients when compared to HCs.

CONCLUSIONS

The current study proposes that lower IL-33 and higher MANF serum levels are associated with MDD progression and depression severity. These biomarkers could be used as risk assessment tools for MDD. We recommend more investigation, including a significant population, to determine the precise function of IL-33 and MANF in depression.

Altered serum TNF-α and MCP-4 levels are associated with the pathophysiology of major depressive disorder: A case-control study results

BACKGROUND

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a debilitating mental health condition with complex etiology, and recent research has focused on pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines as potential contributors to its pathogenesis. However, studies investigating the roles of TNF-α and MCP-4 in MDD within the Bangladeshi population are scarce. This study aimed to assess the association between serum TNF-α and MCP-4 levels and the severity of MDD, exploring their potential as risk indicators for MDD development.

METHODS

This case-control study enrolled 58 MDD patients from Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University (BSMMU) Hospital, Dhaka, Bangladesh, alongside 30 age, sex, and BMI-matched healthy controls. MDD diagnosis followed DSM-5 criteria and disease severity using the 17-item Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (Ham-D). We measured serum TNF-α and MCP-4 levels using ELISA assays according to the supplied protocols.

RESULTS

The study revealed significantly elevated serum TNF-α levels in MDD patients (47±6.6 pg/ml, mean±SEM) compared to controls (28.06±1.07 pg/ml). These increased TNF-α levels positively correlated with Ham-D scores (Pearson's r = 0.300, p = 0.038), suggesting a potential association between peripheral TNF-α levels and MDD pathology. Additionally, MDD patients exhibited significantly higher serum MCP-4 levels (70.49±6.45 pg/ml) than controls (40.21±4.08 pg/ml). However, serum MCP-4 levels showed a significant negative correlation (r = -0.270, P = 0.048) with Ham-D scores in MDD patients, indicating a more complex role for MCP-4 in MDD pathogenesis.

CONCLUSION

This study highlights that Bangladeshi MDD patients exhibit heightened inflammatory and immune responses compared to controls, supporting the cytokine hypothesis in MDD pathogenesis. Serum TNF-α, but not MCP-4, shows promise as a potential biomarker for assessing the risk of MDD development, which could aid in early detection. Future investigations involving larger populations and longitudinal studies are essential to confirm the utility of these cytokines as biomarkers for MDD.

Association of granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor and interleukin-17 levels with obsessive-compulsive disorder: a case-control study findings

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a mental condition that affects many people and is characterized by recurring obsessions and compulsions. It significantly impacts individuals' ability to function ordinarily daily, affecting people of all ages. This study aimed to investigate whether or not the cytokines granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and interleukin-17 (IL-17) are involved in the pathophysiology of OCD. A case-control study with 50 OCD patients and 38 healthy volunteers served as the controls for this investigation. The levels of GM-CSF and IL-17 in the serum of both groups were measured with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits. In addition, the sociodemographic characteristics of the population under study were studied. Based on the findings of this study, OCD patients had significantly elevated levels of IL-17 than the controls, it appears that there may be a function for IL-17 in the pathophysiology of OCD. It was also discovered that the severity of OCD and IL-17 levels had a significant positive correlation. On the other hand, when comparing the levels of GM-CSF, there was no significant difference between the patients and the controls. This study provides evidence supporting the involvement of cytokine IL-17 in the pathophysiology of OCD. This study suggests IL-17 as a diagnostic biomarker for OCD and adds to our knowledge of the function that the immune system plays in this condition.

Association of reduced serum EGF and leptin levels with the pathophysiology of major depressive disorder: A case-control study

BACKGROUND

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a heterogeneous mental disorder having a very diverse course and causing a significant changes in daily life. Though the exact pathophysiology of depression is still not known, an alteration in the serum levels of cytokines and neurotrophic factors was seen in MDD subjects. In this study, we compared the serum levels of 'pro-inflammatory cytokine leptin and neurotrophic factor EGF' in healthy controls (HCs) and MDD patients. To make the findings more accurate, we eventually looked for a correlation between altered serum leptin and EGF levels and the severity of the disease condition.

METHODS

For this case-control study, about 205 MDD patients were enrolled from the Department of Psychiatry, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University, Dhaka, and about 195 HCs were enrolled from various parts of Dhaka. The DSM-5 was utilized to evaluate and diagnose the participants. The HAM-D 17 scale was used to measure the severity of depression. After collecting blood samples, they were centrifuged to produce clear serum samples. These serum samples were analyzed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits to measure serum leptin and EGF levels.

RESULTS

We observed lowered serum EGF levels in MDD patients compared to HCs (524.70 ± 27.25 pg/ml vs. 672.52 ± 49.64 pg/ml, p = 0.009), and HAM-D score was elevated in MDD patients compared to HCs (17.17 ± 0.56 vs. 2.49 ± 0.43, p<0.001). But no correlation was established between serum EGF levels and the severity of depression. However, no significant differences were observed between MDD patients and HCs in the case of serum leptin levels (p = 0.231).

CONCLUSION

Our study findings suggest that reduced serum EGF levels have an impact on the pathogenesis of depression. But as per our investigation, the severity of depression is not correlated with altered EGF levels. Our findings regarding the association of EGF with MDD would help to use EGF as a risk indicator of depression. We suggest further clinical investigations to determine the precise function of leptin and EGF in depression.

Attitudes of mental healthcare professionals and media professionals towards each other in reducing social stigma due to mental illness in Bangladesh

Mental illness is a neglected issue all over the world. The development of negligence towards mental illness could be due to the stigmatized attitudes. Also, social stigma due to mental illness is prevalent in many south Asian countries. In Bangladesh, the condition is even worse than regional data in Asia. The general people consider media as a primary source of information about mental health. However, mental health professionals (MHP) have direct contact with psychiatric patients and their family members. Therefore, both MHP and media professionals (MP) have a role in reducing social stigma due to mental illness. The present study aimed to identify attitudes of MHP and MP towards each other in reducing social stigma due to mental illness. We conducted a cross-sectional online survey among 174 participants (80 MHP and 94 MP). We used two sets of self-reporting questionnaires to assess the attitudes of MHP and MP towards one another. Also, we collected and analyzed sociodemographic profiles of study participants. We observed significant differences in terms of their profession-related statements between MHP and MP. Also, we have seen significant gaps between MHP and MP in terms of their complete agreement on attitude-related aspects. However, most respondents agreed that stigma due to mental illness is a vital problem in Bangladesh. Moreover, maximum participants accepted that the current public images about psychiatry and media role in reducing social stigma need to be improved. We observed gap between MHP and MP in their roles and beliefs in reducing social stigma due to mental illness in Bangladesh. Reciprocal training and awareness programs would help them in reducing social stigma due to mental illness. The findings of the present study would help to sort out the possible areas for interventions. However, the present study has few limitations; therefore, we recommend further studies with more homogeneous and large samples to make better conclusion.

Reduced serum BDNF levels are associated with the increased risk for developing MDD: a case-control study with or without antidepressant therapy

Objective

We do not have any consistent markers for major depressive disorder (MDD) though various biological factors are involved in the pathophysiology. We aimed to evaluate the serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels in MDD patients with or without antidepressant therapy compared to healthy controls (HCs).

Results

We assessed serum BDNF levels among three groups: drug-naïve MDD patients (n = 41), drug-treated MDD patients (n = 44), and age-and sex-matched HCs (n = 82). Serum BDNF levels were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit. Serum levels of BDNF were detected significantly lower in drug-naïve MDD patients compared to HCs. No significant alterations of serum BDNF levels between drug-treated patients and HCs were identified. Significant negative correlations between serum BDNF levels and Hamilton depression rating (Ham-D) scores were observed in both drug-naïve and drug-treated MDD patients. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis showed good diagnostic value for serum BDNF levels in drug-naïve MDD patients with the area under the curve at 0.821. The present study suggests that low serum BDNF levels may be involved in the pathophysiology of MDD. The reduced serum BDNF levels might be used as an early risk assessment marker for major depression.

Altered serum interleukin-7 and interleukin-10 are associated with drug-free major depressive disorder

BACKGROUND

Abnormal expression of inflammatory cytokines in major depressive disorder (MDD) suggests the activation of an inflammatory process. The pattern of alterations in cytokine levels is still ambiguous. The present study aimed to evaluate interleukin-7 (IL-7) and interleukin-10 (IL-10) for their involvement in the pathophysiology of MDD and determine their relationships with depression risk.

METHODS

The study included 166 medication-free subjects: 84 MDD patients and 82 sex- and age-matched healthy controls (HCs). A qualified psychiatrist diagnosed patients and evaluated controls based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5). Hamilton depression rating scale (Ham-D) was used to measure the severity of depression in MDD patients. Serum IL-7 and IL-10 levels were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits.

RESULTS

Compared with HCs, the serum levels of IL-7 were significantly decreased, whereas that of IL-10 increased in MDD patients. Moreover, the severity of depression is correlated with the altered levels of IL-7 and IL-10 in MDD patients. We found a negative correlation between IL-7 and Hamilton depression rating (Ham-D) scores (r = -0.580, p < 0.05), whereas there was a positive correlation between IL-10 and Ham-D scores (r = 0.555, p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The altered levels of serum IL-7 and IL-10 in MDD patients may represent a homeostatic mechanism that enhances the inflammatory process during depression. The alterations of these cytokine levels in MDD and their association with the severity of depression support them as promising, but there may still be controversial factors for understanding the pathophysiology of depression.

Evaluation of Serum Interleukin-6 and C-reactive Protein Levels in Drug-naïve Major Depressive Disorder Patients

Background Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a disabling health problem with a very high global prevalence and burden. Alteration of inflammatory markers in depression is of growing interest to many psychiatry researchers. This study aimed to examine the serum levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and C-reactive protein (CRP) in MDD patients to find out their association with depression. Materials and methods The present study recruited 88 MDD patients and 86 control subjects matched by age, gender, and body mass index (BMI). The Hamilton depression rating scale (Ham-D) was used on all patients to measure their severity of depression. Serum levels of IL-6 and CRP were analyzed by commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits (Abcam, Cambridge, MA, USA). Results The mean values of serum levels of IL-6 and CRP were 2.94 ± 0.12 pg/mL and 0.99 ± 0.02 mg/L for the patient group and 2.42 ± 0.21 pg/mL and 1.09 ± 0.06 mg/L for the control group, respectively. We found significantly elevated concentrations of serum IL-6 in MDD patients compared with control subjects (p < 0.001). However, the alteration of serum CRP levels was not significant between the groups (p = 0.126). Ham-D scores of patients were positively correlated with serum IL-6 (r = 0.552; p = 0.004) and CRP (r = 0.621; p < 0.001) levels. Moreover, serum IL-6 and CRP levels were observed to be positively correlated (r = 0.452; p = 0.043) with each other in depression. Conclusions The present study suggests that increased serum IL-6 level might be a contributing factor to the pathogenesis of depression.

Alterations of serum macro-minerals and trace elements are associated with major depressive disorder: a case-control study

BACKGROUND

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a mixed disorder with the highly irregular course, inconsistent response to treatment and has no well-known mechanism for the pathophysiology. Major causes of depression are genetic, neurobiological, and environmental. However, over the past few years, altered serum levels of macro-minerals (MM) and trace elements (TE) have been recognized as major causative factors to the pathogenesis of many mental disorders. The purpose of this study was to determine the serum levels of MM (calcium and magnesium) and TE (copper, iron, manganese, selenium, and zinc) in MDD patients and find out their associations with depression risk.

METHODS

This prospective case-control study recruited 247 patients and 248 healthy volunteers matched by age and sex. The serum levels of MM and TE were analyzed by atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). Statistical analysis was performed with independent sample t-tests and Pearson's correlation test.

RESULTS

We found significantly decreased concentrations of calcium and magnesium, iron, manganese, selenium, and zinc in MDD patients compared with control subjects (p < 0.05). But the concentration of copper was significantly increased in the patients than control subjects (p < 0.05). Data obtained from different inter-element relations in MDD patients and control subjects strongly suggest that there is a disturbance in the element homeostasis.

CONCLUSION

Our study suggests that altered serum concentrations of MM and TE are major contributing factors for the pathogenesis of MDD. Alterations of these elements in serum levels of MDD patients arise independently and they may provide a prognostic tool for the assessment of depression risk.

Psychiatric disorders among the children of 5 to 18 years old of 'SIDR' affected areas

<p><strong>Background:</strong> Natural disasters give raise a significant amount of physical and mental impairment in human beings. Any sort of disaster acts as a causative and maintaining factor for any psychiatric morbidity. In November 15, 2007, the cyclone "SIDR" intensified to reach peak winds of 215 km/h (135 mph) according to the IMD, a peak of 250 km/h (155 mph) according to the JTWC. "SIDR" officially made landfall around 1700 UTC later that day, with sustained winds of 215 km/h (135 mph). As it intensified to a Category 4-equivalent cyclone and thus coastal districts of Bangladesh faced heavy rainfall as an early impact of the cyclone. The damage in Bangladesh was extensive, including tin shacks flattened, houses and schools blown away and enormous tree damage. The entire cities of Patuakhali, Barguna and Jhalokati District were hit hard by the storm surge of over 5 meters ( 16 ft). The head of the Red Crescent in Bangladesh expects the death toll to reach as high as 10,000. Over 3,000 other fishermen were reported missing on over 500 fishing boats. The "SIDR" left its strong impact on those who survived. <strong></strong></p><p><strong>Objectives:</strong> The Study was aimed to estimate the prevalence of psychiatric disorder among children and adolescents in the "SIDR" affected areas. <strong></strong></p><p><strong>Method:</strong> This was cross sectional, qualitative study done among the children and adolescent groups of 5 to 18 years old to see the effect of natural disaster on the people of southern part of Bangladesh. The whole of the children population who attended in the health camp were included in the study during the study period. Three teams have worked among the four "SIDR" affected districts. Each team consists of Psychiatrists, General Physicians, and Clinical Psychologist.</p><p><strong>Results:</strong> A total of 158 children in four defined areas revealed that the prevalence rate of psychiatric disorder was 48%.</p><p><strong>Conclusion:</strong> This type of study should be done in multi-centers in SIDR affected disti.icts of Bangladesh to find out the actual prevalence rate of child and adolescent psychiatric disorder.</p>

Comparative analysis of serum zinc, copper, manganese, iron, calcium, and magnesium level and complexity of interelement relations in generalized anxiety disorder patients

The purpose of the study was to determine the concentration of serum trace and other essential elements of generalized anxiety disorder patients and to find out the relationship between element levels and nutritional status or socioeconomic factors. The study was conducted among 50 generalized anxiety disorder patients and 51 healthy volunteers. Patients were selected and recruited in the study with the help of a clinical psychologist by random sampling. The concentrations of serum trace elements (Zn, Cu, Mn, and Fe) and other two essential elements (Ca and Mg) were determined by graphite furnace and flame atomic absorption spectroscopy. Data were analyzed by independent t test, Pearson's correlation analysis, regression analysis, and analysis of variance. The serum concentrations of Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Ca, and Mg in generalized anxiety disorder patients were 1.069 ± 0.40, 1.738 ± 0.544, 1.374 ± 0.750, 3.203 ± 2.065, 108.65 ± 54.455, and 21 ± 4.055 mg/L, while those were 1.292 ± 0.621, 0.972 ± 0.427, 0.704 ± 0.527, 1.605 ± 1.1855, 101.849 ± 17.713, and 21.521 ± 3.659 mg/L in control subjects. Significantly decreased (p < 0.05) serum Zn concentration was found in the patient group compared to the control group while serum level of Cu, Mn, and Fe was significantly (p < 0.05) higher, but the differences of the concentration of Ca and Mg between the patient and control groups were not significant (p > 0.05). Socioeconomic data revealed that most of the patients were in the lower middle class group and middle-aged. Mean BMI of the control group (23.63 ± 3.91 kg/m(2)) and the patient group (23.62 ± 3.77 kg/m(2)) was within the normal range (18.5-25.0 kg/m(2)). The data obtained from different interelement relations in the generalized anxiety disorder patients and control group strongly suggest that there is a disturbance in the element homeostasis. So changes in the serum trace element level in generalized anxiety disorder patients occur independently and they may provide a prognostic tool for the diagnosis and treatment of this disease.

Zinc, manganese, calcium, copper, and cadmium level in scalp hair samples of schizophrenic patients

The purpose of the study was to determine the concentration of trace elements present in scalp hair sample of schizophrenic patients and to find out the relationship between trace elements level and nutritional status or socioeconomic factors. The study was conducted among 30 schizophrenic male patients and 30 healthy male volunteers. Patients were recruited from Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University by random sampling. Hair trace element concentrations were determined by flame atomic absorption spectroscopy and analyzed by independent t test, Pearson's correlation analysis, regression analysis, and analysis of variance (ANOVA). Mn, Zn, Ca, Cu, and Cd concentrations of schizophrenic patients were 3.8 +/- 2.31 microg/gm, 171.6 +/- 59.04 microg/gm, 396.23 +/- 157.83 microg/gm, 15.40 +/- 5.68 microg/gm, and 1.14 +/- 0.89 microg/gm of hair sample, while those of control subjects were 4.4 +/- 2.32 microg/gm, 199.16 +/- 27.85 microg/gm, 620.9 +/- 181.55 microg/gm, 12.23 +/- 4.56 microg/gm, and 0.47 +/- 0.32 microg/gm of hair sample, respectively. The hair concentration of Zn and Ca decreased significantly (p = 0.024; p = 0.000, respectively) and the concentration of Cu and Cd increased significantly (p = 0.021; p = 0.000, respectively) in schizophrenic patients while the concentration of Mn (p = 0.321) remain unchanged. Socioeconomic data reveals that most of the patients were poor, middle-aged and divorced. Mean body mass indices (BMIs) of the control group (22.26 +/- 1.91 kg/m(2)) and the patient group (20.42 +/- 3.16 kg/m(2)) were within the normal range (18.5-25.0 kg/m(2)). Pearson's correlation analysis suggested that only Ca concentration of patients had a significant positive correlation with the BMI (r = 0.597; p = 0.000) which was further justified from the regression analysis (R (2) = 44%; t = 3.59; p = 0.002) and one-way ANOVA test (F = 3.62; p = 0.015). A significant decrease in the hair concentration of Zn and Ca as well as a significant increase in the hair concentration of Cu and Cd in schizophrenic patients than that of its control group was observed which may provide prognostic tool for the diagnosis and treatment of this disease. However, further work with larger population is suggested to examine the exact correlation between trace element level and the degree of disorder.