Stable population structure in Europe since the Iron Age, despite high mobility

Ancient DNA research in the past decade has revealed that European population structure changed dramatically in the prehistoric period (14,000-3000 years before present, YBP), reflecting the widespread introduction of Neolithic farmer and Bronze Age Steppe ancestries. However, little is known about how population structure changed from the historical period onward (3000 YBP - present). To address this, we collected whole genomes from 204 individuals from Europe and the Mediterranean, many of which are the first historical period genomes from their region (e.g. Armenia and France). We found that most regions show remarkable inter-individual heterogeneity. At least 7% of historical individuals carry ancestry uncommon in the region where they were sampled, some indicating cross-Mediterranean contacts. Despite this high level of mobility, overall population structure across western Eurasia is relatively stable through the historical period up to the present, mirroring geography. We show that, under standard population genetics models with local panmixia, the observed level of dispersal would lead to a collapse of population structure. Persistent population structure thus suggests a lower effective migration rate than indicated by the observed dispersal. We hypothesize that this phenomenon can be explained by extensive transient dispersal arising from drastically improved transportation networks and the Roman Empire's mobilization of people for trade, labor, and military. This work highlights the utility of ancient DNA in elucidating finer scale human population dynamics in recent history.

A genetic history of the Balkans from Roman frontier to Slavic migrations

The rise and fall of the Roman Empire was a socio-political process with enormous ramifications for human history. The Middle Danube was a crucial frontier and a crossroads for population and cultural movement. Here, we present genome-wide data from 136 Balkan individuals dated to the 1st millennium CE. Despite extensive militarization and cultural influence, we find little ancestry contribution from peoples of Italic descent. However, we trace a large-scale influx of people of Anatolian ancestry during the Imperial period. Between ∼250 and 550 CE, we detect migrants with ancestry from Central/Northern Europe and the Steppe, confirming that "barbarian" migrations were propelled by ethnically diverse confederations. Following the end of Roman control, we detect the large-scale arrival of individuals who were genetically similar to modern Eastern European Slavic-speaking populations, who contributed 30%-60% of the ancestry of Balkan people, representing one of the largest permanent demographic changes anywhere in Europe during the Migration Period.

The pathological anatomical collection of the Natural History Museum Vienna

The pathological anatomical collection Vienna (Pathologisch-Anatomische Sammlung Wien; PASW) is a living and still growing research collection. It was established as early as 1796 as part of the Medical University of Vienna, acquired the status of an independent federal museum in 1971, and was assigned to the Natural History Museum Vienna in 2012. It houses a wide range of human wet and dry specimens and further objects, such as moulages, medical devices, microbiological and histological specimens, and a photo archive (approximately 50,000 objects), which, as a meaningful source, may contribute to disclosing not only aspects of the medical history and the development of corresponding museums in Vienna, but is also considered a collection of cultural and current scientific relevance, quite comparable to today's biobanks. Most of the tissue amassment represents wet organic specimens and human skeletons or skeletal elements representing, e.g., congenital and metabolic disorders, infectious diseases, injuries, neoplasms, or musculoskeletal diseases, basically collected as descriptive anatomical teaching aids. This article reviews the current medical issues on which research has been and is being conducted by including PASW specimens (hereby using the ICD-10 code), and the extent to and ethical conditions under which this important heritage could be used as a reference collection for clinical and bioanthropological (paleopathological and palaeoepidemiological) studies; finally, this article reflects on the value and future research prospects, taking into account different positions and the ongoing discussions in pathological anatomical human tissue collections.

Sagittal suture morphological variation in human archaeological populations

Cranial sutures join the many bones of the skull. They are therefore points of weakness and consequently subjected to the many mechanical stresses affecting the cranium. However, the way in which this impacts their morphological complexity remains unclear. We examine the intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms of human sagittal sutures by quantifying the morphology from 107 individuals from archaeological populations spanning the Mesolithic to Middle ages, using standardized two‐dimensional photographs. Results show that the most important factor determining sutural complexity appears to be the position along the cranial vault from the junction with the coronal suture at its anterior‐most point to the junction with the lambdoid suture at its posterior‐most point. Conversely, factors such as age and lifeways show few trends in complexity, the most significant of which is a lower complexity in the sutures of Mesolithic individuals who consumed a tougher diet. The simple technique used in this study therefore allowed us to identify that, taken together, structural aspects play a more important role in defining the complexity of the human sagittal suture than extrinsic factors such as the mechanical forces imposed on the cranium by individuals' diet.

The dietary behavior of two early medieval individuals with temporomandibular ankylosis

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to reconstruct the dietary behavior of two early medieval individuals who display gnathic malformation.

MATERIAL

Two skeletons affected by temporomandibular ankylosis were analyzed, one from the Great Moravian burial site of Rajhradice (9th century AD, Czech Republic), and the other from the Avar burial site of Schӧnkirchen (8th century AD, Austria).

METHODS

Carbon and nitrogen isotopic values were measured from the bone collagen of both individuals. In the Rajhradice case, where the childhood origin of ankylosis is deduced, isotopic analysis of dentine sections was performed.

RESULTS

Both individuals show isotopic values within the range of variation of a contemporaneous population sample. There was no observable dietary change in the Rajhradice individual that could be linked to the occurrence of ankylosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Both individuals consumed diets typical for their populations. They appear to not have restricted access to foodstuffs, namely animal protein, which would likely have had to be served in liquid (e.g. milk) or in a highly mashed form to compensate for insufficient mastication.

SIGNIFICANCE

This finding provides specific evidence of care provided to these two afflicted members of past populations.

LIMITATIONS

Though the proportion of animal protein is an important indicator of the quality of diet, many other aspects of diet - such as micronutrient content - elude stable isotope analysis.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

Amino acid compound specific isotope analyses of collagen would provide deeper insight into both the diet and physiology of the affected individuals.

Ancient DNA reveals monozygotic newborn twins from the Upper Palaeolithic

The Upper Palaeolithic double burial of newborns and the single burial of a ca. 3-month-old infant uncovered at the Gravettian site of Krems-Wachtberg, Austria, are of paramount importance given the rarity of immature human remains from this time. Genome-wide ancient DNA shows that the male infants of the double grave are the earliest reported case of monozygotic twins, while the single grave´s individual was their 3rd-degree male relative. We assessed the individuals´ age at death by applying histological and µCT inspection of the maxillary second incisors (i2) in conjunction with C- and N-isotope ratios and Barium (Ba) intake as biomarker for breastfeeding. The results show that the twins were full-term newborns, and that while individual 2 died at birth, individual 1 survived for about 50 days. The findings show that Gravettian mortuary behaviour also included re-opening of a grave and manipulation of its layout and content.

Microstructural analysis of bony alterations in a historic case of actinomycosis

OBJECTIVE

Actinomycosis infection of bone is rare and its diagnosis challenging. Here, we aim to identify and verify its microstructural features and the potential value for differential diagnosis.

MATERIALS

We investigated the dry preparation of the lumbar vertebrae and pelvic ring of a purported case of actinomycosis documented by a post-mortem examination in 1891.

METHODS

Macroscopic inspection, conventional radiology, μCT, 3D reconstruction, and histological examination were employed.

RESULTS

All approaches revealed new periosteal bone deposition with increased vascularisation of the os coxa, vertebrae, and sacrum. The μCT revealed cortical loss underneath the new bone formation; the 3D reconstruction and histological examination revealed plexiform bone and granular structures.

CONCLUSIONS

The plexiform bone is the result of reactive rapid growth and remodelling processes, and is consistent with pathomorphological findings summarised in the autopsy report (soft tissue abscesses and formation of fistulas caused by "Actinomycosis intestine et ossis ilei sin.").

SIGNIFICANCE

This is the first case of a historically documented case of actinomycosis infection investigated by μCT and histology. Different degrees of tissue damage and inflammatory reaction in form of plexiform bone, which has not been reported previously, was identified.

LIMITATIONS

The noted bone tissue modifications are not solely pathognomic of actinomycosis; they characterise other diseases, as well. Histological evaluation is not appropriate for identifying the aetiology of the granular structures observed here; but clinically such aggregations appear in tissue affected by actinomycosis.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

Histochemical and molecular-genetic analyses are obligatory to affirm the diagnosis based on micromorphological features.

Author Correction: The spread of steppe and Iranian-related ancestry in the islands of the western Mediterranean

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia

By sequencing 523 ancient humans, we show that the primary source of ancestry in modern South Asians is a prehistoric genetic gradient between people related to early hunter-gatherers of Iran and Southeast Asia. After the Indus Valley Civilization's decline, its people mixed with individuals in the southeast to form one of the two main ancestral populations of South Asia, whose direct descendants live in southern India. Simultaneously, they mixed with descendants of Steppe pastoralists who, starting around 4000 years ago, spread via Central Asia to form the other main ancestral population. The Steppe ancestry in South Asia has the same profile as that in Bronze Age Eastern Europe, tracking a movement of people that affected both regions and that likely spread the distinctive features shared between Indo-Iranian and Balto-Slavic languages.

Paget's Disease of Long Bones: Microstructural Analyses of Historical Bone Samples

Although Paget's disease of bone (PDB) is the second most common metabolic bone disease, there is only limited information about the microarchitecture of affected bones. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine cortical and trabecular bone properties in clinically relevant locations by microcomputed tomography (µCT). Ten femora and ten tibiae affected by Paget's disease taken from the Natural History Museum Vienna were compared to 13 femora and 10 tibiae of non-affected body donors. Digitization of the cortical and trabecular bone microarchitecture was performed with an X-ray-based µCT scanner. Additionally, semi-quantitative gradings of trabecular and cortical architectural parameters of the femora and the tibiae were generated. Microcomputed tomography images showed changes in the thickness of cortices, cortical porosity, and trabecularization of cortical structures. Moreover, severe disorganization of trabecular structures, trabecular defects, and thickening of (remaining) trabeculae were detected. Numerical cortical analyses showed lower total bone volume (BV) and lower BV in the outer region (66-100%) (- 36%, p = 0.004, and - 50%, p < 0.001, respectively), lower total volume (TV) in the outer region (66-100%) (- 42%, p < 0.001), lower total bone volume fraction (BV/TV) and BV/TV in the outer region (66-100%) (- 23%, and - 12%, p < 0.001, respectively), higher BV and TV in the middle region (33-66%) and higher BV/TV in the inner region (0-33%) (123%, p = 0.011, 147%, p = 0.010, and 33%, p = 0.025, respectively) in Pagetic compared to non-affected bones. Trabecular analyses showed higher BV/TV (96%, p = 0.008) and Tb.Th (43%, p = 0.004) in Pagetic compared to non-affected bones. There is a major and consistent structural alteration of PDB at cortical and trabecular sites in weight-bearing long bones. Our findings are relevant for the differential diagnosis of PDB and for the pathogenesis of associated complications, since the disorder produces abnormalities in the structure that might lead to bone fragility.

Resolving the matrilineal relationship of seven Late Bronze Age individuals from Stillfried, Austria

In 1976 human remains of seven individuals were discovered in a storage pit located within the Late Bronze Age (9^th century B.C.) settlement Stillfried an der March, Austria. In contrast to the common funeral rite of cremation typical for the Urnfield culture (1300-800 B.C.) the individuals' skeletal remains were found outstandingly preserved (Figure S1). As a result, the burial was subject to various investigations, including two conflicting genealogical pedigree reconstructions, one of which was favoured by later geological fingerprinting. We performed mitochondrial (mt)DNA testing in order to genetically characterize the remains and shed light into the matrilineal relationship of the seven individuals that were earlier anthropologically identified as three adults (two women and a man) and four subadults (one female and three males). MtDNA was analysed using Primer Extension Capture and Massively Parallel Sequencing. The results were by and large in conflict with both pedigree models but confirmed some of the details that were elaborated in previous studies. Whereas both pedigree models suggested that all children were related to one or both females, mtDNA analyses revealed that only one subadult male resulted in the same mitotype as one adult female. All other children yielded different mitotypes indicating that they were maternally unrelated to the two females and between each other.

The genomic history of southeastern Europe

Farming was first introduced to Europe in the mid-7^th millennium BCE–associated with migrants from Anatolia who settled in the Southeast before spreading throughout Europe. To understand the dynamics of this process, we analyzed genome-wide ancient DNA data from 225 individuals who lived in southeastern Europe and surrounding regions between 12,000 and 500 BCE. We document a West-East cline of ancestry in indigenous hunter-gatherers and–in far-eastern Europe–early stages in the formation of Bronze Age Steppe ancestry. We show that the first farmers of northern and western Europe passed through southeastern Europe with limited hunter-gatherer admixture, but that some groups that remained mixed extensively, without the male-biased hunter-gatherer admixture that prevailed later in the North and West. Southeastern Europe continued to be a nexus between East and West, with intermittent genetic contact with the Steppe up to 2000 years before the migrations that replaced much of northern Europe’s population.

The genetic history of Ice Age Europe

Modern humans arrived in Europe ~45,000 years ago, but little is known about their genetic composition before the start of farming ~8,500 years ago. Here we analyse genome-wide data from 51 Eurasians from ~45,000-7,000 years ago. Over this time, the proportion of Neanderthal DNA decreased from 3-6% to around 2%, consistent with natural selection against Neanderthal variants in modern humans. Whereas there is no evidence of the earliest modern humans in Europe contributing to the genetic composition of present-day Europeans, all individuals between ~37,000 and ~14,000 years ago descended from a single founder population which forms part of the ancestry of present-day Europeans. An ~35,000-year-old individual from northwest Europe represents an early branch of this founder population which was then displaced across a broad region, before reappearing in southwest Europe at the height of the last Ice Age ~19,000 years ago. During the major warming period after ~14,000 years ago, a genetic component related to present-day Near Easterners became widespread in Europe. These results document how population turnover and migration have been recurring themes of European prehistory.

The Early Mediaeval manorial estate of Gars/Thunau, Lower Austria: An enclave of endemic tuberculosis?

In recent decades, an increasing number of studies have aimed to shed light on the origin and spread of tuberculosis in past human populations. Here we present the results of a systematic palaeodemographic and palaeopathological survey of the Early Mediaeval population of Gars/Thunau (Lower Austria), which - at this stage - includes 373 individuals recovered at two archaeological sub-sites: a fortified settlement (including a necropolis) at the top of a hill - probably reserved for social and military elites; and a large riverine settlement at the foot of the hill, a so-called 'suburbium', where burials and an area of 'industrial' character were discovered. We recorded a great number of pathological alterations and a variety of 'classical' features of tuberculosis, such as vertebral destructions (Pott's disease) and joint destructions, and other pathological (unspecific) features probably linked with Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection (e.g. new bone formation at the inner surface of the ribs, endocranial alterations in the form of 'pits', and new bone formation at the cranial base). We hypothesize that the two contemporaneous (∼900-1000 AD) populations of Gars/Thunau differed not only in their social affiliation/condition, but also in the type and frequencies of their population-density-related infectious diseases (in particular tuberculosis). Moreover, we investigated the molecular genetic evidence of the causative organism in a few selected immatures exhibiting pathological changes at the inner wall of the cranium and discuss these findings in regard to the macroscopic features observed. Finally, we analysed carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes of both populations and strontium isotope ratios of the hill-top inhabitants in order to reconstruct certain aspects of diet and mobility to test our hypothesis concerning the specific social and/or military character of the site.

A migration-driven model for the historical spread of leprosy in medieval Eastern and Central Europe

Leprosy was rare in Europe during the Roman period, yet its prevalence increased dramatically in medieval times. We examined human remains, with paleopathological lesions indicative of leprosy, dated to the 6th-11th century AD, from Central and Eastern Europe and Byzantine Anatolia. Analysis of ancient DNA and bacterial cell wall lipid biomarkers revealed Mycobacterium leprae in skeletal remains from 6th-8th century Northern Italy, 7th-11th century Hungary, 8th-9th century Austria, the Slavic Greater Moravian Empire of the 9th-10th century and 8th-10th century Byzantine samples from Northern Anatolia. These data were analyzed alongside findings published by others. M. leprae is an obligate human pathogen that has undergone an evolutionary bottleneck followed by clonal expansion. Therefore M. leprae genotypes and sub-genotypes give information about the human populations they have infected and their migration. Although data are limited, genotyping demonstrates that historical M. leprae from Byzantine Anatolia, Eastern and Central Europe resembles modern strains in Asia Minor rather than the recently characterized historical strains from North West Europe. The westward migration of peoples from Central Asia in the first millennium may have introduced different M. leprae strains into medieval Europe and certainly would have facilitated the spread of any existing leprosy. The subsequent decline of M. leprae in Europe may be due to increased host resistance. However, molecular evidence of historical leprosy and tuberculosis co-infections suggests that death from tuberculosis in leprosy patients was also a factor.

Craniofacial morphology in Austrian Early Bronze Age populations reflects sex-specific migration patterns

The Early Bronze Age (2.300-1.500 BC) in lower Austria consists of three synchronous regional manifestations (Únetice, Unterwölbling, and Wieselburg cultures). The bearers of these cultures inhabited a relatively small geographic area and shared similar ecological conditions, but previous studies revealed population differences in skeletal morphology. We analyzed the cranial morphology of 171 individuals of these populations with a geometric morphometric approach in order to compare different migration scenarios. We find significant mean form differences between populations and between sexes. In a principal component analysis, the Wieselburg population, located southwest of the Danube, largely separates from the Únetice population north of the Danube, whereas the southwestern Unterwölbling group, which played a central role in trading bronze objects, overlaps with both. The Böheimkirchen group, inhabiting the southwestern Danubian area in the later phase of the Early Bronze Age, differs from the chronologically older Unterwölbling group. Geographic distance between six sites and position relative to the river Danube accounted for 64% of form distance variation; the effect of the river Danube was considerably larger than hat of geographic distance per se. As predicted for a patrilocal system in which females have a larger marriage domain than males, we found that female mean forms are more similar to each other than male mean forms. Geographic conditions explained more than twice as much variation in females as in males, suggesting that female migration was more affected by geographical constraints than male migration was.

Architecture of the nasal complex in neanderthals: comparison with other hominids and phylogenetic significance

Although paranasal sinus configuration has occasionally been the focus in analyses of the phylogenetic relationships of various primates, other elements of the region of the nasal fossa--in particular, the turbinals--have received far less attention. A preliminary study of Neanderthal cranial morphology revealed the presence of an apparently unique configuration of the lateral wall of the nasal cavity: namely, in the region in which in Homo sapiens the anterior extremity of the maxilloturbinal (also referred to as the inferior nasal concha) articulates with the internal surface of the maxilla along a relatively anteroposteriorly long and essentially horizontally oriented conchal crest, there exists a vertically oriented thickening that protrudes medially into the nasal cavity (Schwartz and Tattersall, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996; 93:10852-10854). Subsequent citations of this report either claimed that this "medial projection" in Neanderthals is merely an enlarged maxilloturbinal or mistakenly identified as this structure the base of a maxilloturbinal that had fused to the lateral wall of the nasal cavity and subsequently broken off. In light of the potential significance that any novel configuration of the nasal complex architecture may have for elucidating hominid evolution, we present here a comparative overview of this region in fossil and extant large-bodied hominoids, and demonstrate that Neanderthals do indeed possess a configuration that is unique among hominids.

PCR diagnostics of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in historic human long bone remains from 18th century burials in Kaiserebersdorf, Austria

Background

In the present pilot study we applied recently published protocols for detecting Mycobacterium tuberculosis in human remains. We screened long bones from an 18^th century cemetery and skulls from the anatomical "Weisbach collection" (19^th century). In addition, besides the study of abundance of tuberculosis in inmates of the poorhouse itself, we were interested to test whether in this particular instance tuberculosis can be identified from cortical bones, which are rarely affected by tuberculosis, but mostly better preserved than the vertebral bodies or epiphyses.

Method

The DNA extractions from the bone samples were obtained following established ancient DNA protocols. Subsequently extracts were subjected to a series of PCR amplifications using primer pairs published previously [1,2]. PCR products of the expected size were subsequently sequenced.

Results

Only primers targeting the repetitive IS6110 insertion sequence yielded PCR products of appropriate size. In one sample only (skull sample WB354 of the "Weisbach collection") sequence analysis revealed an authentic M. tuberculosis sequence that matched to a reference sequence from GenBank.

Conclusion

With a variety of established PCR approaches we failed to detect M. tuberculosis DNA in historic human femurs from an 18^th century cemetery relating to a poor house in Kaiserebersdorf, Austria. Our data may indicate that in this particular case, thoracic or lumbar vertebrae, i.e. bones that are severely affected by the disease, would be more suitable for molecular diagnostics than long bones. However, the unpredictable state of DNA preservation in bones from museum collections does not allow any general recommendation of any type of bone.

Enhanced methods for assessment of the trace element composition of Iron Age bone

Modern, ultra-trace, analytical methods, coupled with magnetic sector ICP-MS (HR-ICP-MS), were applied to the determination of a large suite of major and trace elements in Iron Age bones. The high sensitivity and un-paralleled signal-to-noise characteristics of HR-ICP-MS enabled the accurate measurement of Ag, Al, As, Ba, Ca, Cd, Ce, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, La, Li, Mg, Mn, Ni, P, Pb, Pt, Rb, Sr, U, V, and Zn in small bone sections (<75 mg). Critically, the HR-ICP-MS effectively addressed molecular interferences, which would likely have compromised data generated with quadrupole-based ICP-MS instruments. Contamination and diagenetic alteration of ancient bone are grave concerns, which if not properly addressed, may result in serious misinterpretation of data from bone archives. Analytical procedures and several chemical and statistical methods (Principal Components Analysis - PCA) were studied to assess their utility in identifying and correcting bone contamination and diagenetic alteration. Uncertainties in bone (femur) sampling were characterized for each element and longitudinal variation was found to be the dominant source of sampling variability. However the longitudinal variation in most trace elements levels was relatively modest, ranging between 9 and 17% RSD. Bone surface contamination was evaluated using sequential acid leaching. Calcium-normalized metal levels in brief, timed, dilute nitric acid leaches were compared with similarly normalized interior core metal levels to assess the degree of surface enrichment. A select group of metals (Mn, Co, Ni, Ag, Cd, and Pt) were observed to be enriched by up to a factor of 10 in the bone surface, indicating that that these elements may have a higher contamination component. However, the results of sequential acid leaching experiments indicated that the single acid leaching step was effective in removing most surface-enriched contaminants. While the leaching protocol was effective in removing contaminants associated with the bone surface, there remained potentially significant residual levels of soil-sourced contaminant tracers within the leached bone. To address this issue a mathematical procedure, based on metal/aluminum ratios, was developed to correct-for the soil-contaminant metal pools. Soil correction fractions for the primary anthropogenically mobilized metals evaluated were greatest for Pb (13.6%) followed by As (4.4%), Ag (3.9%), and Cd (0.94%). Although median soil corrections were typically low, many samples did require a much larger correction, thus both bone cleaning and soil corrections may be necessary to realize accurate endogenous bone elemental data. The results of the PCA analysis were remarkably consistent with outcomes from the chemical and elemental ratio protocols evaluated in the study, and suggest that loadings on certain factors will be helpful in screening for soil-biased samples and in identifying diagenetically altered bone. Application of these contamination evaluation and correction tools was made possible by the high-quality, multi-element, datasets produced by HR-ICP-MS. Large variations in bone core concentrations between the 80 Iron Age specimens examined were observed for all the primary trace elements and in many of the supporting elements, even after correction for major contaminant components.

Upper Palaeolithic infant burials

Decorations on the bodies of newborns indicate that they were probably important in their community. Several adult graves from the Stone Age (Upper Palaeolithic period) have been found but child burials seem to be rare, which has prompted discussion about whether this apparently different treatment of infants could be significant. Here we describe two recently discovered infant burials from this period at Krems-Wachtberg in Lower Austria, in which the bodies were covered with red ochre and decorated with ornaments and were therefore probably ritually buried. These findings indicate that even newborns were considered to be full members of these hunter-gatherer communities about 27,000 years ago.

Direct dating of Early Upper Palaeolithic human remains from Mladec

The human fossil assemblage from the Mladec Caves in Moravia (Czech Republic) has been considered to derive from a middle or later phase of the Central European Aurignacian period on the basis of archaeological remains (a few stone artefacts and organic items such as bone points, awls, perforated teeth), despite questions of association between the human fossils and the archaeological materials and concerning the chronological implications of the limited archaeological remains. The morphological variability in the human assemblage, the presence of apparently archaic features in some specimens, and the assumed early date of the remains have made this fossil assemblage pivotal in assessments of modern human emergence within Europe. We present here the first successful direct accelerator mass spectrometry radiocarbon dating of five representative human fossils from the site. We selected sample materials from teeth and from one bone for 14C dating. The four tooth samples yielded uncalibrated ages of approximately 31,000 14C years before present, and the bone sample (an ulna) provided an uncertain more-recent age. These data are sufficient to confirm that the Mladec human assemblage is the oldest cranial, dental and postcranial assemblage of early modern humans in Europe and is therefore central to discussions of modern human emergence in the northwestern Old World and the fate of the Neanderthals.

Cross-population analysis of the growth of long bones and the os coxae of three Early Medieval Austrian populations

Inter-population variability in long-bone and pelvic-bone growth during the Early Medieval period is examined. The materials comprise four archaeological populations: two Slavonic (Gars-Thunau, Zwentendorf, Austria, 10th-century AD), one Avar (Zwölfaxing, Austria, 8th-century AD), and one Anglo-Saxon (Raunds, England, 10th-century AD). Bone measurements are analyzed against dental age estimates in order to assess inter-population differences in growth rates for long-bone and os coxae bone dimensions. Growth curves of the upper and lower extremities of additional archaeological populations and a modern North-American population are also assessed. The expectation was that the greatest differences in growth patterns would be found between the Anglo-Saxon and the Austrian samples, due to their distinct genetic and biocultural background. Minimal differences were expected between the two Slavonic populations, as these were approximately contemporaneous, recovered from geographically close locations, and shared relatively similar archaeological contexts. Growth curves were estimated for each bone dimension by fitting least-squares fourth-order polynomials (which allowed testing of population differences by analysis of covariance), and iteratively estimating Gompertz growth curves. The results showed differences between bones in the extent of inter-population variability, with diaphyseal long-bone growth showing equivalent patterns across the four populations, but significant differences between populations in the growth patterns of distal diaphyseal dimensions of the femur and humerus and the dimensions of the ilium. Varying growth patterns are therefore associated with inter-population differences in absolute dimensions in relation to age as well as variations in growth velocities. Inter-population variability in growth curves in the case of femoral and humeral dimensions were most pronounced during infancy (0-2 years). The most consistent differences in bone growth and related dimensions are between Zwölfaxing and the other samples. No significant differences in growth were detected between the Anglo-Saxon and the Austrian populations.

No evidence of Neandertal mtDNA contribution to early modern humans

The retrieval of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences from four Neandertal fossils from Germany, Russia, and Croatia has demonstrated that these individuals carried closely related mtDNAs that are not found among current humans. However, these results do not definitively resolve the question of a possible Neandertal contribution to the gene pool of modern humans since such a contribution might have been erased by genetic drift or by the continuous influx of modern human DNA into the Neandertal gene pool. A further concern is that if some Neandertals carried mtDNA sequences similar to contemporaneous humans, such sequences may be erroneously regarded as modern contaminations when retrieved from fossils. Here we address these issues by the analysis of 24 Neandertal and 40 early modern human remains. The biomolecular preservation of four Neandertals and of five early modern humans was good enough to suggest the preservation of DNA. All four Neandertals yielded mtDNA sequences similar to those previously determined from Neandertal individuals, whereas none of the five early modern humans contained such mtDNA sequences. In combination with current mtDNA data, this excludes any large genetic contribution by Neandertals to early modern humans, but does not rule out the possibility of a smaller contribution.

Analysis of mitochondrial DNA from four Neandertal fossils and five "modern human" contemporaries excludes any large genetic contribution of Neandertals to the gene pool of modern humans

The diagnostic eye--on the history of genetic and racial assessment in pre-1938 Austria

The present contribution examines the history of the genetic biology experts reports in Austria up until 1938. This field of activity effected the research topics and -methods at the Viennese Institute for Anthropology considerably and caused an increase of application in practice. The motives of the scientists, the coalition of interests as well as the orientation towards the content of the discipline before 1938--which created the prerequisites for the racial experts reports of the NS time--will be discussed.

Human remains from the Austrian Gravettian: the Willendorf femoral diaphysis and mandibular symphysis

Early excavations at the Willendorf site complex in Austria yielded a femoral diaphysis collected between 1883 and 1887 and a mandibular symphysis discovered in 1908--1909. The femoral section, Willendorf 1, derives from the Willendorf I site and direct AMS (14)C dating (24,250+/-180 years B.P.) assigns it to layer 9. The Willendorf 2 mandibular piece was excavated from layer 9 of the Willendorf II site, which is AMS (14)C dated to 24,000--23,900 years B.P. The Willendorf 1 femoral piece is relatively small and exhibits a pronounced pilaster and linear aspera, moderately elevated relative cortical area, and a level of diaphyseal robusticity in the middle of the European earlier Upper Paleolithic human range of variation, assuming similar body proportions. The Willendorf 2 mandibular symphysis has an inferior lingual torus, a planum alveolare, and a mental trigone with indistinct lateral tubercles, a clear fossa mentalis and a midline basilar rounding. In these features it is close to the majority of European earlier Upper Paleolithic mandibles.

Differential diagnosis on ancient skeletal remains: conventional methods and novel application of the BSE-mode in SEM on a skull tumor of the early Bronze Age

Tumor-like lesions on skeletal remains put relatively high demands on paleopathological diagnostic methods. In addition to conventional anthropological determination and non-invasive methods of macroscopical description and radiodiagnostic examination, bony lesions can be analyzed more accurately, but also more elaborately by light microscopy of invasive section preparations. In this study an irregular new bone formation on the excavated skull of a juvenile individual was also investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). A cut-out block of the lesion was first observed in the secondary electron-mode (SE-mode), and then methylmethacrylate-embedded ground and polished sections were for the first time also evaluated in the back-scattered electron-mode (BSE-mode). Thereby, new insights into the bone structure and the development of this tumor-like lesion could be obtained which led to the diagnosis of a meningioma.

Evidence of genocide 7000 BP--Neolithic paradigm and geo-climatic reality

The early Neolithic fortified settlement of Schletz, Lower Austria is emerging as one of the most interesting sites of Linear Pottery culture excavation in Austria. In the course of systematic investigations carried out since 1983, a plethora of unexpected results have been obtained. Specifically, the human skeletal remains of 67 individuals have been found at the base of an oval trench system. Without exception, these remains are characterized by multiple traumatic lesions as well as carnivore gnaw marks. Demographic analysis presents the picture of the entire population of this early farming settlement having been extinguished. Further, the findings suggest that a genocide scenario may have been responsible for the final demise of this settlement. The age and sex distribution reveals a lack of young females, who are interpreted as having been abducted by aggressors. There is however no direct skeletal evidence of aggressors at the site; in fact, the uniformity of Strontium isotope ratios (HR-ICP-MS analysis) implies that all 67 individuals, who were left unburied for months, were indigenous. Supporting evidence of increased levels of inter-human aggression--possibly caused by a broad wave of migration--comes from other contemporary end linear pottery sites in Germany. Such findings are here discussed in the context of a dramatic geological event in the region of the Black Sea shelf at this time (7.550 BP), which led to the submergence of some 100.000 square kilometers of fertile land, and which might have been responsible for subsequent gradual population movements into the interior of Europe.

The Ice Man's diet as reflected by the stable nitrogen and carbon isotopic composition of his hair

Establishing the diets of ancient human populations is an integral component of most archaeological studies. Stable isotope analysis of well-preserved bone collagen is the most direct approach for a general assessment of paleodiet. However, this method has been limited by the scarcity of well-preserved skeletal materials for this type of destructive analysis. Hair is preserved in many burials, but is often overlooked as an alternative material for isotopic analysis. Here we report that the stable carbon and nitrogen isotope values for the hair of the 5200 year-old Ice Man indicates a primarily vegetarian diet, in agreement with his dental wear pattern. Whereas previous investigations have focused on bone collagen, the stable isotope composition of hair may prove to be a more reliable proxy for paleodiet reconstruction, particularly when skeletal remains are not well preserved and additional archaeological artifacts are unavailable.

Cancellous bone structure in the growing and aging lumbar spine in a historic Nubian population

There is abundant data on cancellous bone in the aging human spine, but little relating to the growing vertebral cancellous bone in childhood an adolescence. The purpose of this study was to map vertebral cancellous bone in a growth and age series of historic skeletal samples and to make comparisons with data published on recent material. Lumbar vertebral bodies were collected from 65 skeletons (0-60 years) from a medieval Nubian population. Ethnohistoric information was collected to interpret conditions that might have influenced bone structure and metabolism. The cancellous bone was studied three dimensionally, using stereophotography and scanning electron microscopy and morphometrically by performing a semiautomatic structural analysis on digitized backscattered electron images of polymethacrylate-embedded material. The cancellous bone structure in the children consisted mainly of a densely packed, uniform network of small rodlike trabeculae. The greatest bone volume fraction with small, more platelike trabeculae was observed during adolescence. In young adults, larger platelike trabeculae were present in the central zone and smaller trabeculae in the superior and inferior zones, as described for modern skeletal material. Structural changes associated with aging were observed much sooner than in modern man. by the estimated age of approximately 50-60 years, the predominant architectural elements were slender rarified rods in both sexes. The ethnohistorical data suggest that this was essentially a black African population of physically active peasants, not likely to suffer Vitamin D insufficiency or deficient calcium intake. Thus an earlier onset of the biological age changes in cancellous bone found in modern populations was probably relevant.

Protein oxidation of a hair sample kept in Alaskan ice for 800-1000 years

Ancient finds of organic matter are not only of the highest value for palaeochemists and palaeobiologists but can be used to determine basic chemical reactions, such as protein oxidation, over long time periods. We studied oxidation of human hair protein about one thousand years old of an Alaskan child buried in ice, ten hair samples of copts of comparable age buried in graves of hot dry sand and compared the results to ten recent hair samples. Protein oxidation parameters o-tyrosine and cysteic acid of the Alaskan child were comparable to recent samples whereas they were higher in the coptic specimen. N-epsilon-carboxymethyllysine, a parameter for glycoxidation, however, was as high in coptic specimen. We conclude that ice in contrast to soil prevented protein oxidation but failed to inhibit glycoxidation, a reaction initiated by autooxidation of glucose. This study therefore has implications for the interpretation of oxidation and glycoxidation as well as preservation mechanisms of proteins.

[Age and sex specific differences in bone density of 4,000-year-old individuals. Bone density measurement of early Bronze Age femurs from excavations in Unterhautzenthal, Lower Austria]

Bone density measurements of 14 individuals (early Bronze Age, 2200-1600 BC), analyzed by dual-energy absorptiometry, showed a distinct difference between women and men. In men, there was a high bone density (+17.9%-0.290 g/cm2 difference). In females, a constant decrease in bone density was found after the age of 20-25 years (from 1.2 g/cm2 at 20 years to 0.8 g/cm2 at 40 years of age). With caution, the results are comparable with those of the present time.

Age- and sex-dependent cancellous bone changes in a 4000y BP population

We studied cancellous bone loss in a 4000y BP population, using several methods designed to detect age-related changes, in order to investigate the pattern of cancellous bone loss in this ancient population and to compare the results deriving from different methods used on identical specimens. We used 10-mm sections of fourth lumbar vertebral bodies and left femoral necks of 18 individuals of both sexes with estimated ages from 20 to 60 years of a 4000y BP bronze-age population. Stereoscopic photographs were used for three-dimensional analysis and trabecular number (TN) counting. After embedding, the following parameters were measured in different image analysis systems using plane parallel block samples: bone mineral density (BMD) in water by DEXA, and by evaluation of standardized radiographic images; fractional bone volume (BV/TV) in backscattered electron images of the trabecular surface layer and in optical images of trabeculae in a surface-stained layer; and trabecular bone pattern factor (TBPf) in the latter images. There was a high correlation between the results of morphological methods for measuring fractional bone volume. Reasonable correlations were found between the x-ray photon methods and poor correlations between these and the morphological methods. These poor correlations may be due to the diagenetic substitution occurring in archaeological skeletons, which would strongly influence x-ray-based density measurements. However, all the methods demonstrated that the most dramatic loss of quantity and quality in cancellous bone occurred in females between 40 and 60 years.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

[Evidence of nicotine in scalp hair of naturally mummified bodies from the Christian Sayala (Egyptian-Nubian)]

The investigations of hair samples obtained from human skeleton from the Christian cemetery of Sayala demonstrate the presence of nicotine. 12 of 39 individual hair samples were positive. These results indicate the use of plants containing nicotine as principal or secondary alkaloid.

Some anthropological aspects of the prehistoric Tyrolean ice man

The corpse of a Late Neolithic individual found in a glacier in Oetztal is unusual because of the intact nature of all body parts that resulted from the characteristics of its mummification process and its protected geographical position with regard to glacier flow. Anthropological data indicate that the man was 25 to 40 years old, was between 156 and 160 centimeters in stature, had a cranial capacity of between 1500 and 1560 cubic centimeters, and likely died of exhaustion.

[Sexual dimorphism of tooth crown diameters. A contribution to the determination of the sex of subadult individuals from the early bronze age graveyard of Franzhausen I, lower Austria]

In this paper, the sexual differences between mesio-distal and bucco-lingual diameters of deciduous and permanent teeth of an Early Bronze Age population from Franzhausen are presented. Data from a total of 172 (85 male and 87 female) subadult individuals was collected. The presumptive sex determination needed for this investigation could be achieved because of specific burial rites that characterize the Unterwölbling culture south of the Danube. The averages of both the deciduous and permanent teeth show that female individuals possess altogether teeth of smaller dimensions. The differences are, for a few permanent teeth, statistically highly significant. Using these to calculate discriminant analyses based on differing variable sets, a correct sex assignment was achieved in 81% to 75% of all cases. For the purposes of sexual diagnosis, a function combining only three measurements (MD and BL diameters of upper canine and BL diameter of the first upper molar) was 80% successful.

Observations on hair shaft morphology in mucopolysaccharidoses

Scalp hair samples were obtained from 11 children with mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS, types I, II and III) in order to study the micromorphological structure of the hair shafts. To evaluate the morphological variation longitudinal hair preparations and cross-sections were investigated by light microscopy and additionally scanning electron microscopy was employed to demonstrate the surface structure. It is shown that the mean hair shaft diameter in MPS-patients, separated into two age groups, is not significantly different from the mean value in normal children of the same age, whereas the wider range of diameters and, in connection with it, the increased medulla content seems to be a characteristic feature of MPS. The most striking deviations were observed in the cross-sections, particularly in MPS III/A patients: varying polygonal shapes and an abnormal pigment distribution. According to these cross-sections the hair surface exhibited severe deformities in the scanning electron microscope, i.e. distortions of hair, irregular nodes and longitudinal grooves. In MPS I and II similar abnormalities were found.

[Fracture of the mandibular condyle in a skeleton dating from the early middle ages (author's transl)]

The skeleton of a 45 to 50 year-old man dating from the early Middle Ages (discovered at Schwechat in Lower Austria) was examined. In addition to numerous pathological findings with respect to the masticatory apparatus such as caries, severe crown abrasion, pulp necrosis and inflammatory and degenerative alterations in the areas near the teeth, an exceptionally rare findings was observed, namely that of a deformation of the right mandibular condyle. The differential diagnosis on the basis of the radiological findings showed the presence of post-traumatic transformation processes with functional adaptation. Since anatomical specimens of completely healed jawbone fractures are exhibited only rarely in recent case histories, this findings takes on a special significance from the medical as well as from the archeological and anthropological points of view.