Sapwood mycobiome varies across host, plant compartment and environments in Nothofagus forests from Northern Patagonia

Global forests are increasingly being threatened by altered climatic conditions and increased attacks by pests and pathogens. The complex ecological interactions among pathogens, microbial communities, tree hosts and the environment are important drivers of forest dynamics. Little is known about the ecology of forest pathology and related microbial communities in temperate forests of the southern hemisphere. In this study, we used next-generation sequencing to characterize sapwood-inhabiting fungal communities in North Patagonian Nothofagus forests and assessed patterns of diversity of taxa and ecological guilds across climatic, site and host variables (health condition and compartment) as a contribution to Nothofagus autecology. The diversity patterns inferred through the metabarcoding analysis were similar to those obtained through culture-dependent approaches. However, we detected additional heterogeneity and greater richness with culture-free methods. Host species was the strongest driver of fungal community structure and composition, while host health status was the weakest. The relative impacts of site, season, plant compartment and health status were different for each tree species; these differences can be interpreted as a matter of water availability. For Nothofagus dombeyi, which is distributed across a wide range of climatic conditions, site was the strongest driver of community composition. The microbiome of N. pumilio varied more with season and temperature, a relevant factor for forest conservation in the present climate change scenario. Both species carry a number of potential fungal pathogens in their sapwood, whether they exhibit symptoms or not. Our results provide insight into the diversity of fungi associated with the complex pathobiome of the dominant Nothofagus species in southern South America.

In vitro cytotoxic capacity against tumor cell lines and antioxidant activity of acidic polysaccharides isolated from the Andean Patagonian fungus Phylloporia boldo

Fungal polysaccharides possess a broad biological activity, including cytotoxic and antioxidant activities. This work aimed to evaluate the cytotoxic and antioxidant activity of the acidic polysaccharides of Phylloporia boldo strain (named PBAP40). Cytotoxic activity of polysaccharide was evaluated determining the viability of three tumor cell lines by MTT assay. The effect of acidic polysaccharide on the cell cycle of HL-60 cell line was evaluated by flow cytometry, and the antioxidant activity was determined by DPPH and ABTS assays. PBAP40 showed cytotoxic effects in tumor cell lines. Results suggest that P. boldo acidic polysaccharides arrested tumor cells in the cell cycle Sub G1 phase. The acidic polysaccharides of PBAP40 strain were not cytotoxic for the non-tumor cell line. PBAP40 also showed excellent antioxidant activity. The FT-IR analysis of the acidic polysaccharides indicated the presence of glucans bearing α- and β- type glycosidic bonds.

Effect of Huntiella decorticans and drought on Nothofagus dombeyi seedlings

In the temperate forests of Patagonia, Argentina, Nothofagus dombeyi, commonly known as Coihue, has shown sensitivity to intense drought events, leading to mortality. Studies have been conducted on Coihue decline and mortality using a variety of approaches, including the role of extreme heat waves and drought, pests and pathogens, particularly the fungus Huntiella decorticans. This work aimed to evaluate survival, vitality, necrosis extension and growth response of inoculated and non-inoculated Coihue seedlings from different provenances exposed to different soil moisture levels. To achieve this goal, 96 Coihue seedlings from 2 different provenances were assigned to 8 different experimental treatments. Treatments were composed of the presence or absence of H. decorticans and different soil moisture content conditions, dry, wet and the exposure to dry condition at different times of the experiment. Both dry conditions and H. decorticans had negative effects on the survival and growth rate of Coihue. The combination of both factors resulted in 100 % mortality, regardless of the plants' geographical provenances. Mortality began to be observed 3 months after pathogen inoculation, during the warmest month. Necrosis extension produced by the pathogen was similar for most of the inoculated treatments. The treatment under wet condition during the experiment but subjected to dry condition in the previous growing season presented lower necrosis extension (8.4 ± 3.2 %), than the other treatments. The radial increase was also affected by the treatments and geographical provenance, being those plants exposed to dry conditions which grew less (0.19 ± 0.21 mm). This study enhances our understanding of the plant-pathogen interaction. According to our results, Coihue may become more susceptible to mortality, when H. decorticans and water deficit conditions act synergistically.

Diversity of Agaricomycetes in southern South America and their bioactive natural products

Fungi have a unique metabolic plasticity allowing them to produce a wide range of natural products. Since the discovery of penicillin, an antibiotic of fungal origin, substantial efforts have been devoted globally to search for fungal-derived natural bioactive products. Andean region forests represent one of the few undisturbed ecosystems in the world with little human intervention. While these forests display a rich biological diversity, mycological and chemical studies in these environments have been scarce. This review aims to summarise all the efforts regarding the chemical or bioactivity analyses of Agaricomycetes (Basidiomycota) from southern South America environments. Overall, herein we report a total of 147 fungal species, 21 of them showing chemical characterisation and/or biological activity. In terms of chemical cores, furans, chlorinated phenol derivatives, polyenes, lactones, terpenes and himanimides have been reported. These natural products displayed a range of biological activities including antioxidant, antimicrobial, antifungal, neuroprotective and osteoclast-forming suppressing effects.

Biotransformation of Araucaria araucana lignans: solid-state fermentation with a naturally occurring Pleurotus ostreatus strain

Abstract The effects of a naturally occurring Patagonian strain of the white-rot fungus Pleurotus ostreatus on Araucaria araucana wood lignans was evaluated. Lignans of colonized and non-colonized wood shavings and the activity of fungal ligninolytic enzymes were studied. Lignans were identified using gas chromatography with a mass spectrometry detector. Only eudesmin lignan resisted biological degradation. The highest laccase activity was 0.111 ± 0.067 IU.g-1 dry matter substrate, which was reached after 60 days, whereas the highest manganese peroxidase (MnP) activity was 0.220 ± 0.109 IU.g-1 dry matter substrate, which was reached after 25 days, when the fungus was grown in a solid-state culture on wood shavings. The degradation properties of this fungal strain may be useful for not only treating resinous wastes from the regional forest industry to produce biofuels but also improving paper production. Moreover, the capacity of this white-rot fungus to grow on resinous A. araucana materials as substrate suggests the possibility of using the wood shavings or sawdust of this and other conifers as a food source to culture P. ostreatus, an edible mushroom.

An approach to the biogeography of polypore fungi (Agaricomycotina, Basidiomycota) in southern South America

The polyporoid fungi from the Patagonian Andes forests of Argentina and Chile were analyzed from a biogeographic point of view through the optics of phylogenetic studies. A total of 72 species are accepted, including 4 that are still unpublished. Species were distributed as either Cosmopolitan (14 spp.), Antitropical (7 spp.), Pantropical + Austral-antarctic (3 spp.), Neotropical (4 spp.), South-temperate (= endemic, 28 spp.), Austral-antarctic (14 spp.) or Circum-austral (2 spp.) in distribution. They were recorded in the Valdivian province (71 spp.), but also in the Magellanic province (22 spp.) and the Maule province (21 spp.). Three species were also distributed northward in Chile and other 8 species were also found in Juan Fernández province. Almost 35% of the species are brown wood-rotting taxa, representing a relatively high percentage in the polypore funga of Patagonia as compared with other world regions; they are mostly associated with Nothofagaceae, not conifers as in the North Hemisphere. Nothophellinus proved to be the single endemic genus, Neophellinus is shown to be a sub-Amazonian genus, and Arambarria an austral genus with representatives in southern South America (south of the Tropic of Capricorn) and the Cape floristic region. For each species, a detailed account of the phylogeny is presented according to the literature, along with insights into its geographical distribution and relationships with other taxa in the genus where it is accepted. Austral lineages are highlighted at genus level (Gloeoporellus, Macrohyporia, Neolentiporus, Ryvardenia; incl. 5 species) and species level (another 12 taxa). Ongoing and completed speciation processes are pointed out. The following new combinations are proposed: Cyanosporus venatus, Neophellinus livescens and Postia exigua.

Digging Up the Roots: Taxonomic and Phylogenetic Disentanglements in Corticiaceae s.s. (Corticiales, Basidiomycota) and Evolution of Nutritional Modes

Corticiaceae is one of the traditional families of the Agaricomycetes and served for a long time as a convenient placement for basidiomycetes with a resupinate, corticioid form of fruiting body. Molecular studies have helped to assign many corticioid fungi to diverse families and orders; however, Corticiaceae still lacks a phylogenetic characterization and modern circumscription. Here, we provide the first comprehensive phylogenetic and taxonomic revision of the family Corticiaceae based on extensive type studies and sequences of nLSU, ITS, IGS, nSSU, and mtSSU regions. Our analyses support the recognition of ten monophyletic genera in the Corticiaceae, and show that nutritional mode is not a robust basis for generic delimitations in the family. The genus Mycobernardia and the species Corticium thailandicum, Erythricium vernum, and Marchandiomyces allantosporus are described as new to science, and five new combinations are proposed. Moreover, ancestral character state reconstruction revealed that saprotrophy is the plesiomorphic nutritional mode in the Corticiaceae, while several transitions have occurred to diverse nutritional modes in this family. Identification keys are provided to the genera in Corticiaceae s.s. as well as to the species in Corticium, Erythricium, Laetisaria, and Marchandiomyces.

Species and genera in Aleurodiscus sensu lato as viewed from the Southern Hemisphere

Phylogenetic relationships of 12 species in Aleurodiscus sensu lato (Stereaceae, Russulales) described from the Patagonian forests of Chile and Argentina were investigated based on sequences of nuc rDNA internal transcribed spacer region ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 (ITS) and the D1-D2 domains of nuc 28S rDNA (28S). A new genus and a new species are presented, and 10 new combinations proposed. The genus Gloeosoma is shown to be phylogenetically well supported and morphologically circumscribed; it includes G. vitellinum (type species), G. mirabile, comb. nov., G. zealandicum, comb. nov., and Gloeosoma decorticans, sp. nov., which is newly described from Chile. The new genus Stereodiscus is proposed to accommodate a group of taxa characterized by an austral distribution and morphologically by smooth, thin-walled, amyloid basidiospores and a lack of gloeocystidia and acanthocystidia; three species develop Stereum-like basidiomata and two species present discoid ones. The new genus includes the species formerly known as Aleurodiscus antarcticus, A. limonisporus, A. parmuliformis, A. patagonicus, and A. triviale. Specimens of Stereodiscus parmuliformis (A. parmuliformis) from New Zealand (where it was originally described) and southern Chile are shown to be phylogenetically conspecific, which confirms its presence in Patagonia. Gloeosoma and Stereodiscus are shown to be distantly related to Aleurodiscus s. str. and other genera in Stereaceae. The new combinations Aleurocystidiellum bernicchiae, Aleurocystidiellum hallenbergii, and Acanthobasidium quilae are proposed based on morphology and phylogenetic analyses, and Aleurodiscus cerussatus is shown to be a cryptic species complex.

Competing sexual-asexual generic names in Agaricomycotina (Basidiomycota) with recommendations for use

With the change to one scientific name for fungal taxa, generic names typified by species with sexual or asexual morph types are being evaluated to determine which names represent the same genus and thus compete for use. In this paper generic names of the Agaricomycotina (Basidiomycota) were evaluated to determine synonymy based on their type. Forty-seven sets of sexually and asexually typified names were determined to be congeneric and recommendations are made for which generic name to use. In most cases the principle of priority is followed. However, 16 generic names are recommended for use that do not have priority and thus need to be protected: Aleurocystis over Matula; Armillaria over Acurtis and Rhizomorpha; Asterophora over Ugola; Botryobasidium over Acladium, Allescheriella, Alysidium, Haplotrichum, Physospora, and Sporocephalium; Coprinellus over Ozonium; Coprinopsis over Rhacophyllus; Dendrocollybia over Sclerostilbum and Tilachlidiopsis; Diacanthodes over Bornetina; Echinoporia over Echinodia; Neolentinus over Digitellus; Postia over Ptychogaster; Riopa over Sporotrichum; Scytinostroma over Artocreas, Michenera, and Stereofomes; Tulasnella over Hormomyces; Typhula over Sclerotium; and Wolfiporia over Gemmularia and Pachyma. Nine species names are proposed for protection: Botryobasidium aureum, B. conspersum, B. croceum, B. simile, Pellicularia lembosporum (syn. B. lembosporum), Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Polyporus metamorphosus (syn. Riopa metamorphosa), Polyporus mylittae (syn. Laccocephalum mylittae), and Polyporus ptychogaster (syn. Postia ptychogaster). Two families are proposed for protection: Psathyrellaceae and Typhulaceae. Three new species names and 30 new combinations are established, and one lectotype is designated.

Poroid Hymenochaetaceae associated with trees showing wood-rot symptoms in the Garden Route National Park of South Africa

Poroid Hymenochaetaceae associated with wood rots of trees in three timber-harvesting compartments of the Garden Route National Park (GRNP), South Africa, were investigated using multilocus phylogenetic analyses and morphology of the basidiomes. Results revealed the presence of 10 species belonging to five genera. Six of the species are known, but four are described as new. The known species include Fomitiporia capensis, Fuscoporia gilva, Sanghuangporus microcystideus, Tropicoporus tropicalis, Inonotus rickii, and Inonotus setuloso-croceus. The new species are described as Fomitiporia tsitsikamensis, Fulvifomes elaeodendri, Fuscoporia pulviniformis, and Phellinus guttiformis.

Biotransformation of grape pomace from Vitis labrusca by Peniophora albobadia LPSC # 285 (Basidiomycota)

Grape pomace from Vitis labrusca is an important sub-product of the "American table wine" industry. It is recalcitrant to degradation, and its accumulation is a serious problem with negative environmental impacts. We analyzed the ability of five white-rot fungi to transform this residue in-vitro. Mass loss and phenol removal in grape pomace treated with each fungus were compared after 30-day solid-state fermentation. Since Peniophora albobadia isolate LPSC 285 was the fungus that showed the highest degradative ability and the lowest free phenol levels in the residue transformed, we selected this fungus to monitor its effect on this residue after 30, 60, and 90 days of incubation. We analyzed mass loss of the residue caused by the fungus activity and its chemical changes using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. After 90 days of incubation, Peniophora albobadia isolate LPSC 285 reduced grape pomace mass by 20.48%, which was associated with degradation of polysaccharides and aromatic structures. We concluded that Peniophora albobadia LPSC # 285 isolate is a promising fungus to transform grape pomace from Vitis labrusca under solid-state fermentation conditions.

Notes, outline and divergence times of Basidiomycota

The Basidiomycota constitutes a major phylum of the kingdom Fungi and is second in species numbers to the Ascomycota. The present work provides an overview of all validly published, currently used basidiomycete genera to date in a single document. An outline of all genera of Basidiomycota is provided, which includes 1928 currently used genera names, with 1263 synonyms, which are distributed in 241 families, 68 orders, 18 classes and four subphyla. We provide brief notes for each accepted genus including information on classification, number of accepted species, type species, life mode, habitat, distribution, and sequence information. Furthermore, three phylogenetic analyses with combined LSU, SSU, 5.8s, rpb1, rpb2, and ef1 datasets for the subphyla Agaricomycotina, Pucciniomycotina and Ustilaginomycotina are conducted, respectively. Divergence time estimates are provided to the family level with 632 species from 62 orders, 168 families and 605 genera. Our study indicates that the divergence times of the subphyla in Basidiomycota are 406–430 Mya, classes are 211–383 Mya, and orders are 99–323 Mya, which are largely consistent with previous studies. In this study, all phylogenetically supported families were dated, with the families of Agaricomycotina diverging from 27–178 Mya, Pucciniomycotina from 85–222 Mya, and Ustilaginomycotina from 79–177 Mya. Divergence times as additional criterion in ranking provide additional evidence to resolve taxonomic problems in the Basidiomycota taxonomic system, and also provide a better understanding of their phylogeny and evolution.

An overview of Antrodiella and related genera of Polyporales from the Neotropics

The genus Antrodiella includes resupinate and pileate species of polypores with a dimitic hyphal system, small, globose to cylindrical basidiospores, absence of cystidia, tetrapolar mating system, and haplo-dikaryotic nuclear behavior. Recent studies, however, indicate that Antrodiella is highly polyphyletic, so many of its species have been transferred to other genera. This study reviews the systematic status and diversity of Antrodiella from the Neotropics based, in part, on studies of type specimens. Collections from Brazil were used for molecular analysis of nuc rDNA internal transcribed spacer region ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 (ITS), nuc 28S rDNA (28S), and portions of genes encoding translation elongation factor 1-α (tef1) and the second largest subunit of RNA polymerase II (rpb2). Eight genera are confirmed to include Neotropical species treated as Antrodiella in a broad sense: Aegis, Antrodiella s. str., Flaviporus, Metuloidea, Mycorrhaphium, Rickiopora, Trametopsis, and Trullella. Molecular data reveal the occurrence of two new species, described as Antrodiella trivialis, the only Neotropical species of Antrodiella s. str. known so far, and Mycorrhaphium hispidum. In addition, Antrodiella luteocontexta was found to nest in the genus Aegis, close to the Grifolaceae and Polyporaceae; therefore, the new combination Aegis luteocontexta is proposed. Comments on the eight Antrodiella-related genera as well as species with uncertain taxonomic position are provided, together with a key to their identification.

Taxonomy and species diversity of Ganoderma species in the Garden Route National Park of South Africa inferred from morphology and multilocus phylogenies

Ganoderma is a cosmopolitan genus that encompasses species with cultural, economic, and pathogenic importance. Despite the importance of this genus, knowledge pertaining to the species diversity of Ganoderma in South Africa is limited. This study aimed at elucidating the identity and phylogenetic placements of Ganoderma samples obtained during a survey of wood-rotting fungi in the Garden Route National Park (GRNP) of South Africa, supplemented with isolates obtained from other localities across the country. Identification was achieved by means of multilocus phylogenetic inference combined with morphological evaluation. In total, eight distinct species of Ganoderma were recovered from different hosts and localities across the country. Of these, Ganoderma cf. cupreum and Ganoderma cf. resinaceum represent possible new records for South Africa. Two novel species are described, namely, G. eickeri. and G. knysnamense. Ganoderma eickeri, sp. nov., is characterized by a triquetrous and broadly attached basidiome, a sulcate or zonate yellowish brown to brown pilear surface, and ovoid to ellipsoid basidiospores. Ganoderma knysnamense is distinguished by an applanate to ungulate, sometimes convex, dimidiate to broadly attached basidiome, a chocolate-brown pilear surface covered with a hard woody-like crust and ellipsoid, broadly ellipsoid to ovoid basidiospores. The discovery of two new Ganoderma species in this study raises the known Ganoderma species in South Africa to 13.

A re-evaluation of Neotropical Junghuhnia s.lat. (Polyporales, Basidiomycota) based on morphological and multigene analyses

Junghuhnia is a genus of polypores traditionally characterised by a dimitic hyphal system with clamped generative hyphae and presence of encrusted skeletocystidia. However, recent molecular studies revealed that Junghuhnia is polyphyletic and most of the species cluster with Steccherinum, a morphologically similar genus separated only by a hydnoid hymenophore. In the Neotropics, very little is known about the evolutionary relationships of Junghuhnia s.lat. taxa and very few species have been included in molecular studies. In order to test the proper phylogenetic placement of Neotropical species of this group, morphological and molecular analyses were carried out. Specimens were collected in Brazil and used for DNA sequence analyses of the internal transcribed spacer and the large subunit of the nuclear ribosomal RNA gene, the translation elongation factor 1-α gene, and the second largest subunit of RNA polymerase II gene. Herbarium collections, including type specimens, were studied for morphological comparison and to confirm the identity of collections. The molecular data obtained revealed that the studied species are placed in three different genera. Specimens of Junghuhnia carneola represent two distinct species that group in a lineage within the phlebioid clade, separated from Junghuhnia and Steccherinum, which belong to the residual polyporoid clade. Therefore, the new genus Geesterania is proposed including two species, G. carneola comb. nov. and G. davidii sp. nov. Neotropical specimens identified as Junghuhnia nitida represent a different lineage from the European species and are described as Steccherinum neonitidum sp. nov. In addition, the new combinations Steccherinum meridionale, Steccherinum polycystidiferum and Steccherinum undigerum, as well as the new name Flaviporus tenuis, are proposed.

A discussion on the genus Fomitiporella (Hymenochaetaceae, Hymenochaetales) and first record of F.americana from southern South America

Fomitiporella has traditionally been delimited based on the gross morphology of the basidiomes, hyphal structure and basdiospores. Recently, phylogenetic studies supported the incorporation of an extensive number of species within the genus. Although most of its species are nested in the ‘Phellinotus clade’ (Hymenochaetaceae, Basidiomycota), genera such as Arambarria, Inocutis and Phellinotus were not included in previous analysis. To further our understanding of the genus, new sequences from 28S and ITS nuc rDNA genes were jointly analysed with a large selection of taxa in the ‘Phellinotus clade’, also with re-examination of morphological and ecological data. Results showed several lineages in what has hitherto been considered to represent Fomitiporella, indicating that the genus is paraphyletic as presently circumscribed. There is a well-supported Fomitiporella core group that includes the type species and nine other monophyletic lineages with high support, of which those representing Arambarria, Inocutis and Phellinotus are distinct from the Fomitiporella core group by macro and micromorphological traits and/or biogeographic distribution. Fomitiporellaamericana, a species described from SE USA, was found in the Patagonian forests of southern Argentina and Chile; it is the taxon responsible for the white heart-rot found on standing Austrocedruschilensis and one of the taxa decaying wooden tiles of historic churches in Chiloé Is., Chile.

Tomentella (Thelephorales, Basidiomycota) en bosques de Nothofagaceae de Patagonia, Argentina: micorrizas de nuevas especies

La presencia de especies de Tomentella ha sido reportada abundantemente en bosques templados, tropicales y regiones circumpolares. Las especies del género Tomentella forman típicamente ectomicorrizas (EM) aunque también micorrizas orquioides, ericoides, monotroides y arbutoides. La descripción y caracterización de los morfotipos EM constituyen una herramienta muy útil en trabajos ecológicos. En este trabajo se presentan descripciones morfo-anatómicas de 4 EM de Tomentella asociadas a Nothofagus pumilio, N. dombeyi, N. antarctica, Lophozonia alpina y L. procera, identificadas molecularmente a nivel específico. La morfología y el tipo de exploración de las 4 EM fueron consistentes con lo reportado previamente para el género. Estas EM no presentaron especificidad por un único hospedante de Nothofagaceae. Nuestros resultados demuestran que el estudio morfo-anatómico de los morfotipos EM constituye una herramienta insustituible para la cuantificación y el análisis de la diversidad funcional de la comunidad EM.

New species of Tomentella (Thelephorales) from the Patagonian Andes forests

The genus Tomentella forms abundant ectomycorrhizae in coniferous and deciduous forests worldwide. Molecular identification of root tips suggests undescribed species in the Nothofagus forests of Patagonia, Argentina. Tomentella tenuissima, T. pulvinulata and T. patagonica are described here as new to science based on morphological and molecular analyses. Their host range is addressed using available soil sequences. The identity of previous records of T. galzinii and T. radiosa are discussed with morphological and molecular evidence.

Huntiella decorticans sp. nov. (Ceratocystidaceae) associated with dying Nothofagus in Patagonia

During a survey of ophiostomatoid fungi in native forests of southern Argentina, several isolates of Huntiella species were obtained from Nothofagus trees. Sequences of multiple gene regions were used to identify these fungi, and their pathogenicity was tested on N. pumilio and N. dombeyi. Phylogenetic analyses revealed a novel taxon described here as H. decorticans sp. nov. Inoculations on N. dombeyi and N. pumilio in the forest showed that H. decorticans is able to produce localized lesions on healthy Nothofagus trees.

Phylogenetic relationships of Hydnum peroxydatum support the synonymy of Hydnochaete with Hymenochaete (Hymenochaetaceae, Agaricomycetes)

A combined dataset of rDNA ITS and LSU sequences was used to infer the phylogenetic relationships of Hydnochaete peroxydata (≡ Hydnum peroxydatum), the type species of Hydnochaete. The species was retrieved nested within the Hymenochaete s. str. clade; therefore Hydnochaete is regarded as a synonym of Hymenochaete and the new combination Hymenochaete peroxydata is proposed.

The phylogenetic position of Postia s.l. (Polyporales, Basidiomycota) from Patagonia, Argentina

We investigated the phylogenetic relationships of Postia species from Patagonia with rDNA ITS and LSU sequences, together with morphological, cultural and biological features. All species in the genus were included in a "Postia clade" irrespective of whether their spores were thin- or thick-walled. This clade is characterized by tetrapolar mating, a normal nuclear behavior, metachromatic generative hyphae and absence of fiber hyphae in culture. One subclade merged the austral taxa P. pelliculosa and P. punctata, but otherwise no distinct relationships were found regarding spore shape, spore wall thickness and geographical distribution of taxa. The austral P. venata and the endemic P. carbophila, with thin-walled basidiospores, occupied variable positions in both analyses. Postia caesia from Patagonia grouped within the P. caesia species complex but on a separate branch. In contrast, P. rennyi and P. balsamea from Patagonia corresponded well with strains from other geographic areas. The two austral species in Ryvardenia, R. cretacea and R. campyla, characterized by non-metachromatic hyphae, bipolar mating and an astatocoenocytic nuclear behavior, formed an independent subclade among the dimitic genera of the "Antrodia clade", far from other Postia taxa within which they had been placed previously, supporting their inclusion in a genus of their own. Postia carbophila grouped with other Postia species and not with Postia (Rhodonia) placenta as suggested previously on the basis of morphological comparisons. Instead, the latter species grouped with taxa in the dimitic genus Amyloporia with which it shares heterocytic nuclear behavior. A separation between specimens of Postia pelliculosa and Ryvardenia cretacea from either side of the Pacific (i.e. SE Australia/New Zealand and S Argentina/S Chile) suggests they could be considered different at the species level from a phylogenetic point of view.

Multiple cryptic species with divergent substrate affinities in the Serpula himantioides species complex

Serpula himantioides is a widespread saprotrophic morphospecies mainly colonising coniferous wood in nature, but it appears frequently in buildings as well. From an earlier study, it is known that at least three divergent lineages occur within the S. himantioides species complex. In this study, a broader sample of S. himantioides isolates has been analysed by multi-locus sequencing, including new isolates from Asia, North and South America. Altogether five phylogenetical species (PS1-5) were detected, all recognised across independent gene phylogenies. A new southern South American phylogenetic species (PS1) was found, representing an early diverging lineage within the S. himantioides species complex. The two closely related PS2 and PS3 lineages included isolates from North America only, and PS4 was also dominated by North American isolates. Most of the investigated isolates (76%) clustered into PS5, a lineage that has been found on most continents, including North America. Overall, little phylogeographical structure was found in PS5, indicating frequent and recent long-distance dispersal events within this widespread lineage. Our analyses indicate that South and North America are the centres of divergence for the S. himantioides species complex. Some of the lineages seem adapted to various substrates, but PS5 is able to decay a wide array of angiosperms and gymnosperms, which may have facilitated the spread of this lineage throughout the world.

Perenniporiella chaquenia sp. nov. and further notes on Perenniporiella and its relationships with Perenniporia (poriales, basidiomycota)

Perenniporiella chaquenia sp. nov. is described from Argentina. New records of P. pendula and P. micropora are discussed. A key to Perenniporiella species is presented. Preliminary phylogenetic relationships of Perenniporiella are inferred from parsimony and Bayesian analysis of a combined set of DNA sequence data (nuclear ribosomal partial LSU and ITS). It demonstrated that Perenniporiella forms a well resolved monophyletic clade distantly related to Perenniporia s.s. It also clearly showed that within Perenniporia as usually conceived other morphologically homogeneous group of taxa, such as the P. ochroleuca or P. vicina alliances, form well resolved clades, which could be recognized as distinct genera. The differentiation of the hyphal system and the basidiospores morphology are outlined as critical features for the definition of genera in the Perenniporia complex.

Ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir: a comparison of species richness in native western North American forests and Patagonian plantations from Argentina

The putative ectomycorrhizal fungal species registered from sporocarps associated with ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir forests in their natural range distribution (i.e., western Canada, USA, and Mexico) and from plantations in south Argentina and other parts of the world are listed. One hundred and fifty seven taxa are reported for native ponderosa pine forests and 514 taxa for native Douglas-fir forests based on available literature and databases. A small group of genera comprises a high proportion of the species richness for native Douglas-fir (i.e., Cortinarius, Inocybe, and Russula), whereas in native ponderosa pine, the species richness is more evenly distributed among several genera. The comparison between ectomycorrhizal species richness associated with both trees in native forests and in Patagonia (Argentina) shows far fewer species in the latter, with 18 taxa for the ponderosa pine and 15 for the Douglas-fir. Epigeous species richness is clearly dominant in native Douglas-fir, whereas a more balanced relation epigeous/hypogeous richness is observed for native ponderosa pine; a similar trend was observed for Patagonian plantations. Most fungi in Patagonian Douglas-fir plantations have not been recorded in plantations elsewhere, except Suillus lakei and Thelephora terrestris, and only 56% of the fungal taxa recorded in Douglas-fir plantations around the world are known from native forests, the other taxa being new associations for this host, suggesting that new tree + ectomycorrhizal fungal taxa associations are favored in artificial situations as plantations.

Anatomy and cytology of Taphrina entomospora during infection of Nothofagus

Taphrina entomospora is one of the few species of the genus described on native plants of the Southern Hemisphere and also one of the few leaf pathogens known on Nothofagus species. The anatomical changes it produces on N. pumilio leaves, and its morphology, cytology, and sporogenesis were studied. The fungus is a perennial species that overwinters as mycelium in the foliar buds and infects the developing leaves, so the whole blade develops the disease symptoms. Interveinal areas of the leaves become chlorotic, thickened and rounded. Palisade parenchyma fails to develop, with spongy parenchyma developing as packed, rounded, isodiametric cells with little intercellular space. The mycelium is subcuticular, dikaryotic, and produces ascogenous hyphae, asci, and ascospores as described for other species in the genus. Before ascus discharge, ascospores bud in a regular, unique way. The life-cycle of T. entomospora is compared with other representative taxa in the genus and the distribution of this pathogen is discussed.

A new Gloeoporus species growing on bamboo from southern Brazil

Gloeoporus guerreroanus sp. nov. is described and illustrated from specimens collected on bamboo in Rio Grande do Sul State, southern Brazil. The new taxon presents hymenium continuum along the tubular internal surface and dissepiments and represents an addition into the relatively small, poroid-merulioid genus Gloeoporus.

Phytophthora species from declining Austrocedrus chilensis forests in Patagonia, Argentina

A survey of Phytophthora spp. in declining and healthy Austrocedrus chilensis forest was conducted to obtain an overview of the species that inhabit these forests. Seventeen declining and three healthy stands plus 11 associated streams were surveyed. Five Phytophthora species were recovered. P. syringae was the most common species isolated from soil and/or streams at nine declining sites and one healthy site. P. gonapodyides was isolated from streams only, at five declining sites. P. cambivora was isolated from soil and the undescribed taxa 'P. taxon Pgchlamydo' and 22 'P taxon Raspberry' were isolated from streams at one declining site each. The species were identified by ITS rDNA sequences and morphological features. Brief descriptions of each species and a discussion of their possible relationship with "mal del ciprés" are presented.

Parenthesome structure of some corticioid fungi

The parenthesome structure of seven corticioid species, traditionally referred to the family Corticiaceae (Basidiomycota), were studied in order to better understand their taxonomic position: Phanerochaete velutina, Phlebia radiata, P. rufa, Rhizochaete americana (syn. Ceraceomyces americana), R. brunnea, R. filamentosa (syn. Phanerochaete filamentosa) and R. radicata (syn. Phanerochaete radicata). All possessed the perforate type of parenthesome that is commonly encountered in homobasidiomycetes. This feature excludes the above taxa from both the hymenochaetoid and the cantharelloid clades which are the only groups that have imperforate parenthesomes in the homobasidiomycetes.

Rhizochaete, a new genus of phanerochaetoid fungi

A new basidiomycete genus, Rhizochaete (Phanerochaetaceae, Polyporales), is described. Rhizochaete is characterized by a smooth to tuberculate, pellicular hymenophore and hyphal cords that turn red or violet in potassium hydroxide, monomitic hyphal system of simple or nodose septate hyphae, cystidia, and small, cylindrical to subglobose basidiospores. It morphologically is most similar to Phanerochaete. Analyses of nuclear ribosomal and internal-transcribed spacer region sequence data support a close relationship between Rhizochaete and Phanerochaete. The new taxon R. brunnea, from southern Argentina, is described and illustrated. In addition, the new combinations R. americana, R. borneensis, R. filamentosa, R. fouquieriae and R. radicata are proposed. A key to the species of Rhizochaete is provided.

New species causing decay on living Polylepis australis in Cordoba, central Argentina

Two new species of poroid Hymenochaetaceae (Aphyllophorales, Basidiomycota) are described and illustrated. They were causing decay on living and standing dead Polylepis australis ("tabaquillo" or "queñoa") in the Córdoba Mountains in central Argentina. Inonotus serranus is characterized by a biannual basidiocarp, with a dark line separating tomentum from context; ellipsoid to ovoid, thick walled, colored spores; and the absence of setae. Phellinus uncisetus is characterized by uncinate setae with ventricose uniradicate base and well-differentiated apical portion; a basidiocarp attached by a narrow area to the substrate; ventricose, hyaline cistidioles; and by subglobose, hyaline spores, with very thick walls. The identity of Phellinus setulosus is discussed.