Whole-genome sequencing and comparative genomic analyses of the medicinal fungus Sanguinoderma infundibulare in Ganodermataceae

Sanguinoderma infundibulare is a newly discovered species of Ganodermataceae known to have high medicinal and ecological values. In this study, the whole-genome sequencing and comparative genomic analyses were conducted to further understand Ganodermataceae's genomic structural and functional characteristics. Using the Illumina NovaSeq and PacBio Sequel platforms, 88 scaffolds were assembled to obtain a 48.99-Mb high-quality genome of S. infundibulare. A total of 14,146 protein-coding genes were annotated in the whole genome, with 98.6% of complete benchmarking universal single-copy orthologs (BUSCO) scores. Comparative genomic analyses were conducted among S. infundibulare, Sanguinoderma rugosum, Ganoderma lucidum, and Ganoderma sinense to determine their intergeneric differences. The 4 species were found to share 4,011 orthogroups, and 24 specific gene families were detected in the genus Sanguinoderma. The gene families associated with carbohydrate esterase in S. infundibulare were significantly abundant, which was reported to be involved in hemicellulose degradation. One specific gene family in Sanguinoderma was annotated with siroheme synthase, which may be related to the typical characteristics of fresh pore surface changing to blood red when bruised. This study enriched the available genome data for the genus Sanguinoderma, elucidated the differences between Ganoderma and Sanguinoderma, and provided insights into the characteristics of the genome structure and function of S. infundibulare.

Molecular Identification and Characterization of Five Ganoderma Species from the Lower Volta River Basin of Ghana Based on Nuclear Ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) Sequences

Ganoderma is a genus of biomedical fungus that is used in the development of numerous health products throughout the world. The Lower Volta River Basin of Ghana is an undulating land surface covered by extensive vegetation and water bodies and is rich in polypore mushrooms resembling various members of the Ganoderma genus. Despite the extensive biopharmaceutical benefits of Ganoderma spp., the isolates from the Lower Volta River Basin have not been properly characterized, thus limiting their use in the development of biotechnological products. In this study, Ganoderma spp. collected from the Lower Volta River Basin were genetically analyzed using the nuclear ribosomal sequences, the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS 2), the complete internal transcribed spacer (ITS), and the nuclear large subunit (nLSU). Blastn search and sequence analysis revealed that the sample we coded as Ganoderma LVRB-2 belongs to G. mbrekobenum, whereas Ganoderma LVRB-1, Ganoderma LVRB-14, and Ganoderma LVRB-16 belong to the species G. enigmaticum. Our analysis further demonstrates that Ganoderma LVRB-17 belongs to the species G. resinaceum. Thus, the five samples collected in the present study were positioned in three different distinct groups, namely G. mbrekobenum, G. enigmaticum, and G. resinaceum. The current data may serve as reference points for future studies.

Lanostane triterpenoids from mycelia-associated Ganoderma sinense and their anti-inflammatory activity

Seven previously undescribed lanostane triterpenoids, ganoderic acid M1 (1), M2 (2), M3 (3), M4 (4), M5 (5), M6 (6), and M7 (7), together with eight known compounds, were isolated from mycelia of the basidiomycete Ganoderma sinense (Ganodermataceae). The structures of all compounds were elucidated by spectroscopic analysis. The possible biosynthetic pathway of these fifteen triterpenoids was proposed. Some of the compounds were evaluated for their anti-inflammatory activity by measuring the production of nitric oxide (NO), TNF-α, and IL-6 in RAW264.7 macrophage cells induced by lipopolysaccharide. Lanosta-7,9(11),24-trien-3β,15α,22β-triacetoxy-26-oic acid (14) exhibited the strongest inhibition of NO production with an IC50 of 0.6 ± 0.1 μM and completely inhibited the secretion of TNF-α and IL-6 at 10 μM. The structure-activity relationship of the anti-inflammatory activity is discussed.

Antibacterial lanostane triterpenoids from Ganoderma tsugae

A phytochemical investigation on the 80% EtOH extract of the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma tsugae resulted into the isolation of two previously undescribed lanostane triterpenoids, 7,11-dioxo-3β-acetyloxy-26,27-dihydroxy-lanosta-8,24-diene (1) and 7,20-dioxo-3β-acetyloxy-11β,15α-dihydroxy-22,23,24,25,26,27-hexanorlanosta-8-ene (2), togeher with one known lanostane triterpenoid ganodermanontriol (3). Structural elucidation of all the compounds were performed by spectral methods such as 1D and 2D (1H-1H COSY, HMQC, and HMBC) NMR spectroscopy. All the triterpenoids were in vitro evaluated for their antibacterial activities against six pathogenic microorganisms. Compound 3 exhibited some activities against three Gram positive bacteria with MIC values less than 30 μg/ml.

Isolation and characterization of dihydropyran-ring containing meroterpenoids from Ganoderma lucidum and their inhibitory activity against renal fibrosis-related protein expression

The Ganoderma lucidum mushroom, which has been used as a traditional medicine in China for more than 2000 years, is a source of many interesting natural product. In this study, the five undescribed minor meroterpenoids baoslingzhines F-J (1-5), containing a dihydropyran moiety, were isolated as racemic mixtures from the fruiting bodies of G. lucidum. These substances were structurally and stereochemically characterized by using spectroscopic and computational methods. Chiral HPLC was employed to separate the (+)- and (-)-antipodes. A survey of the activities against kidney fibrosis showed that both enantiomers of baoslingzhines F-J inhibit expression of renal fibrosis-related proteins, including fibronectin, collagen I and ɑ-SMA in TGF-β1-induced rat kidney proximal tubular cells.

Taxonomy and phylogeny of Sanguinoderma rugosum complex with descriptions of a new species and a new combination

Sanguinoderma is distributed in tropical and subtropical areas as a member of Amauroderma s. lat., and the economic values of Sanguinoderma led to high attention in the taxonomic studies. Previously, 16 species have been developed into Sanguinoderma. In this study, the taxonomic system of Sanguinoderma was reconducted based on morphological and multi-gene phylogenetic analyses, especially making a distinction for Sanguinoderma rugosum complex. Morphological analysis was based on the notes of macro- and micro morphological observations. Multi-gene phylogenetic analyses were used maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference (BI) analyses inferred from combined dataset of ITS, nLSU, rpb2, tef1, mtSSU, and nSSU. Combined with morphological characters and phylogenetic evidence, the results demonstrated that S. rugosum complex consists of five taxa, in which Sanguinoderma leucomarginatum was described as a new species, and it is characterized by the orbicular pilei with white to buff margin when fresh and clavate apical cells of pileipellis with septa. In addition, Amauroderma preussii was transferred to Sanguinoderma as a new combination due to its blood-red color-changed pore surface; it is characterized by the funnel-shaped, greyish brown, and glabrous pilei with strongly incurved margin. Detailed descriptions and photographs of the two species were provided. With the extension of this study, 18 species were accepted in Sanguinoderma, and 12 species among them were distributed in China. A key to accepted species of Sanguinoderma was also provided.

Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides ameliorate lipopolysaccharide-induced acute pneumonia via inhibiting NRP1-mediated inflammation

CONTEXT

Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides (GLP), from Ganoderma lucidum (Leyss. ex Fr.) Karst. (Ganodermataceae), are reported to have anti-inflammatory effects, including anti-neuroinflammation and anti-colitis. Nevertheless, the role of GLP in acute pneumonia is unknown.

OBJECTIVE

To explore the protective role of GLP against LPS-induced acute pneumonia and investigate possible mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

GLP were extracted and used for high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis after acid hydrolysis and PMP derivatization. Sixty C57BL/6N male mice were randomly divided into six groups: Sham, Model, LPS + GLP (25, 50 and 100 mg/kg/d administered intragastrically for two weeks) and LPS + dexamethasone (6 mg/kg/d injected intraperitoneally for one week). Acute pneumonia mouse models were established by intratracheal injection of LPS. Haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining was examined to evaluate lung lesions. ELISA and quantitative real-time PCR were employed to assess inflammatory factors expression. Western blots were carried out to measure Neuropilin-1 expression and proteins related to apoptosis and autophagy.

RESULTS

GLP suppressed inflammatory cell infiltration. In BALF, cell counts were 1.1 × 10⁶ (model) and 7.1 × 10⁵ (100 mg/kg). Release of GM-CSF and IL-6 was reduced with GLP (25, 50 and 100 mg/kg) treatment. The expression of genes IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and Saa3 was reduced. GLP treatment also suppressed the activation of Neuropilin-1 (NRP1), upregulated the levels of Bcl2/Bax and LC3 and led to downregulation of the ratio C-Caspase 3/Caspase 3 and P62 expression.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

GLP could protect against LPS-induced acute pneumonia through multiple mechanisms: blocking the infiltration of inflammatory cells, inhibiting cytokine secretion, suppressing NRP1 activation and regulating pneumonocyte apoptosis and autophagy.

First report of chemical composition and cytotoxicity evaluation of Foraminispora rugosa basidiomata from Brazil

BACKGROUND

Foraminispora rugosa is a species reported from Brazil, Venezuela, French Guiana, Costa Rica and Cuba. It is a basidiomycete in the Ganodermataceae family. In this study, both chemical composition and cytotoxicity of the ethanolic extract of F. rugosa were investigated for the first time.

RESULTS

Phylogenetic analysis confirmed the identification of the specimens, and the results of cytotoxicity assays showed that at concentrations of 7.8-500.0 µg/mL the ethanolic extract displayed weak cytotoxicity against the tested cell lines. Five oxylipins were identified by ultra high performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight and mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF-MS).

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides new insights into the current knowledge of bioactive compounds produced by macrofungi, and provides data for future biological assays with relative selectivity and safety.

Alkaloids, sesquiterpenoids and hybrids of terpenoid with p-hydroxycinnamic acid from Ganoderma sinensis and their biological evaluation

The fruiting bodies of Ganoderma sinensis are used as food raw materials of marketed healthcare products. To gain an insight into the chemical and biological profling of G. sinensis, twenty-five compounds including eleven undescribed ones (ganodermasines A‒K) and fourteen known ones were isolated. Among them, ganodermasines A‒D are undescribed diketopiperazine alkaloids, ganodermasines E and F are alkaloids containing a pyridine. The structures of undescribed compounds were identified by spectroscopic, computational, and crystallographic methods. The results of acetylcholinesterase (AchE) inhibitory activity show that ganodermasines I and J could inhibit AchE with IC₅₀ values of 26.05 and 20.40 μM, respectively. In addition, neurotrophic assay in PC-12 cells showed that (+)-ganodermasine E, (-)-ganodermasine E, and ganodermasine I could stimulate neurite outgrowth at 10 μM, while the other isolates are inactive. The present findings will lend a hand for further utilization of G. sinensis.

Lanostane triterpenoids from Ganoderma lucidum and their inhibitory effects against FAAH

Ganoderma lucidum is a famous edible and medicinal fungus. Through a bioactive phytochemical investigation of the ethanolic extracts of the fruiting bodies of G. lucidum, twenty-nine triterpenoids, including eleven previously undescribed triterpenoids, were isolated and characterized based on spectroscopic data. The inhibitory effects of all the triterpenes against fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) were found to be in the range of 30-60% at 100 μM. Methyl ganoderate A displayed the strongest inhibitory activity (61%) against FAAH. Furthermore, all compounds displayed no cytotoxicity against LOVO and MCF-7 human cancer cells. Hence, our present study provides information about G. lucidum as a functional food or pharmaceutical supplement for the treatment of neuroinflammation.

Spiroganodermaines A-G from Ganoderma species and their activities against insulin resistance and renal fibrosis

Ganoderma mushrooms are a renowned Chinese medicine and functional food used worldwide. Seven undescribed spiro Ganoderma meroterpenoids spiroganodermaines A-G were isolated from Ganoderma species. Their structures were characterized by using spectroscopic, computational and X-ray diffraction methods. Biological studies showed that (+)-spiroganodermaine G significantly activates glucose uptake and IRS1 phosphorylation in insulin resistance C2C12 cells. Furthermore, (-)-spiroganodermaine G inhibits the expressions of fibronectin and α-SMA in TGF-β1 induced NRK-52E cells. These findings demonstrate the potential of Ganoderma meroterpenoids as medicines and dietary supplements.

Colossolactone J, a highly modified lanostane triterpenoid from a natural fruiting body of Ganoderma colossus

Colossolactone J (1), an undescribed lanostane triterpenoid was isolated from a natural fruiting body of Ganoderma colossus using silica gel column chromatography and preparative HPLC. Its structure was elucidated on the basis of the spectroscopic method. The absolute configuration was determined by the combination of the modified Mosher's method and detailed NMR data analysis.

Metabolic fingerprinting of Ganoderma spp. using UHPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS and its chemometric analysis

A UHPLC-QTOF-MS method was developed to separate and identify 70 triterpenes present in each of the 18 strains of Ganoderma spp. Collected from various parts of India. A PCDL MS library was used to retrieve and identify these 70 triterpenes by meticulous analysis of MS/MS fragments. The MS data from these 18 strains were further statistically analysed to arrive at meaningful conclusions. Heatmap analysis suggested that Ganoderma spp. G44, G25 and G36 were the top three strains of Ganoderma mushrooms based on their metabolic concentration in Indian biota. From the PCA loading plot, it was observed that the triterpenes Ganoderic acid A, Ganoderic acid D, Ganoderic acid F, Ganoderic acid J, Ganoderic acid M, Ganoderic acid N, Ganoderenic acid B, Ganoderiol H, 3β,7β-Dihydroxy-11,15,23-trioxo-lanost-8,16-dien-26-oic acid, 3β,7β,15β-trihydroxy-11,23-dioxo-lanost-8,16-dien-26-oic acid and 20 - hydroxy ganoderic acid AM1 were identified as the principal contributors for the discrimination of a particular strain of the mushroom. We have also identified the samples obtained from different regions of India with the highest concentration of metabolites with potent biological activity. The results presented here could be very helpful for both scientific and industrial applications such as quality control of various medicines and food additives containing triterpenes.

Meroterpenoids containing benzopyran or benzofuran motif from Ganoderma cochlear

Five undescribed benzopyran containing meroterpenoids, ganodercins Q－U, two undescribed benzofuran containing meroterpenoids, ganodercins V and W, and two known meroterpenoids were isolated from Ganoderma cochlear. Their structures were elucidated by using HRESIMS, NMR spectroscopy and computational methods. The results of biochemical studies using a palmitic acid (PA) induced insulin resistance (IR) model show that (-)-ganodercin Q, (+)-ganodercins R and W activate phospho-AKT (p-AKT) at 20 μM and improve glucose uptake in a concentration dependent manner. The results of renoprotection studies show that (+)-ganodercin S, cochlearol F, (+)- and (-)-ganodercins V reduce the expression of collagen I.

Lanostane triterpenoids from cultivated fruiting bodies of basidiomycete Ganoderma mbrekobenum

In the quest for medicinally active compounds in mushrooms of the genus Ganoderma, eleven undescribed lanostane triterpenoids, including a novel chlorinated derivative, i.e., (20S,24E)-21-chloro-15β,20,29-trihydroxy-3,7,11-trioxolanosta-8,24-dien-26-oic acid, were isolated from artificially cultivated fruiting bodies of the basidiomycete Ganoderma mbrekobenum. The structures were elucidated on the basis of NMR spectroscopic and mass spectrometry data. The configuration of the C-20 atom in the most abundant 20-hydroxy-lanostane, (20S,24E)-15β,20,29-trihydroxy-3,7,11-trioxolanosta-8,24-dien-26-oic acid, was established by chemical derivatization, and the absolute configuration of the lanostane skeleton was determined by ECD calculation. Two of the undescribed compounds exhibited moderate antimalarial activity.

Structures of ganorbifates C-I, seven previously undescribed lanostanoids from the mushroom Ganoderma orbiforme, and insights of computed biosynthesis with DFT

Ganorbifates C-I, seven undescribed biosynthetically related polyoxygenated 3,4-seco-27-norlanostanoid congeners, were isolated from the edible mushroom, Ganoderma orbiforme. Ganorbifate C features a unique cyclobutene ring constructed at C19/C11, and both D and E incorporate an unusual cyclopropane ring formed by C-19/C-9 linkage. Their structures, including the absolute configurations, were determined by spectroscopic methods and ECD calculations. The proposed Norrish-Yang cyclization-based key biosynthetic pathway for ganorbifates C-E is revealed by density functional theory (DFT) calculations. The computational studies uncover the formation of both cyclobutene and cyclopropane rings in the isolates and the stereoselectivity centers of these steps are consistent with those in the natural products. All compounds exhibited NO generation inhibition in LPS-induced BV-2 microglial cells, among them ganorbifate C was the most promising one with the IC₅₀ values of 4.37 μM.

Lanostane triterpenoids from cultivated fruiting bodies of Ganoderma sichuanense: Determination of the C-25 absolute configuration of ganoderic acid A and its derivatives using the phenylglycine methyl ester (PGME) method

Three undescribed lanostane triterpenoids, together with twenty-one known compounds, were isolated from artificially cultivated fruiting bodies of the basidiomycete Ganoderma sichuanense. The absolute configuration at C-25 of ganoderic acid A and its derivatives was determined to be 25R by application of the phenylglycine methyl ester (PGME) method. Among the isolated compounds, ganoderiol F exhibited the most potent activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Ra with an MIC value of 0.781 μg/ml.

Phylogenetic analyses and morphological characters reveal two new species of Ganoderma from Yunnan province, China

Ganodermadianzhongense sp. nov. and G.esculentum sp. nov. are proposed as two new species based on both phenotypic and genotypic evidences. Ganodermadianzhongense is characterized by the stipitate basidiomata, laccate and oxblood red pileus, gray white pore surface, duplex context and broadly ellipsoid basidiospores (9.0-12.5 × 6.5-9.0 μm) with coarse interwall pillars. Ganodermaesculentum is characterized by its basidiomata with slender stipe, white pore surface, homogeneous pileus context, and slightly truncate, narrow basidiospores (8.0-12.5 × 5.0-8.0 µm). Phylogenetic analyses were carried out based on the internal transcribed spacer (ITS), translation elongation factor 1-α (TEF1-α) and the second subunit of RNA polymerase II (RPB2) sequence data. The illustrations and descriptions for the new taxa are provided.

CNS anti-depressant, anxiolytic and analgesic effects of Ganoderma applanatum (mushroom) along with ligand-receptor binding screening provide new insights: Multi-disciplinary approaches

This research was designed to evaluate the CNS depressant, anxiolytic, and analgesic action of aqueous and ethanol extract of Ganoderma applanatum, a valuable medicinal fungus used in multiple disorders belongs to Ganodermataceae family. Two extracts of G. applanatum were prepared using distilled water and ethanol as solvents and named AEGA and EEGA. Open field method, rotarod method, tail suspension method, and hole cross method were utilized for the CNS depressant action. In contrast, elevated plus-maze test and hole board method were utilized for the anxiolytic action. For determining the analgesic potential, acetic acid-induced writhing test, hot plate method, and tail immersion test were used. Besides, molecular docking has been implemented by using Discovery studio 2020, UCSF Chimera and PyRx autodock vina. At both doses (200 and 400 mg/kg) of AEGA and EEGA showed significant CNS depressant effect (p < 0.05 to 0.001) against all four tests used for CNS depressant activity. Both doses of AEGA and EEGA exhibited important anxiolytic activity effect (p < 0.05 to 0.001)against the EPM and hole board test. Both doses of AEGA and EEGA also exhibited a potential analgesic effect (p < 0.05 to 0.001) against all three tests used for analgesic action. In addition, in the molecular docking the compounds obtained the scores of −5.2 to −12.8 kcal/mol. Ganoapplanin, sphaeropsidin D and cytosporone C showed the best binding affinity to the selected recptors. It can be concluded that AEGA and EEGA have potential CNS depressant, anxiolytic, and analgesic action, which can be used as a natural antidepressant, anxiolytic, and analgesic source.

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The mushroom extracts were found to possess dose-dependent potentiality in antidepressant and anxiolytic test on mice model.

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The mushroom extracts revealed significant inhibition in pain.

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The mushroom extract is non-toxic evident from acute toxicity study.

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Ganoderma applanatum can be a prominent source of CNS depressant, anxiety and pain management.

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Ganoderma applanatum is a bracket fungus with a cosmopolitan distribution.

A preliminary study to identify and distinguish southern tropical populations of Ganoderma boninense from oil palm via mating assays, sequence data, and microsatellite markers

Morphological studies suggest that the major pathogen causing basal stem rot of oil palm in Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands is Ganoderma boninense. This study presents the first evidence for conspecificity of G. boninense from four countries where basal stem rot is prevalent. Seventy-three dikaryotic isolates of Ganoderma boninense from Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, and Solomon Islands were studied via mating tests, analyses of nuc internal transcribed spacer ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 sequences, and microsatellite genotyping. Sequence similarity in the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region was >99%, and all exotic isolates successfully mated with Papua New Guinea tester strains. Transfer of nuclei during mating was also confirmed via microsatellite markers for the first time in this species. Four microsatellite primers were used to generate evidence for 33 alleles in the four populations. All isolates studied had unique genetic fingerprints but alleles were also shared, suggesting gene flow. Heterozygosities were lower than expected in Indonesian and Papua New Guinea populations, consistent with the possibility of localized inbreeding.

Twelve undescribed derivatives of ganoderic acid isolated from Ganoderma luteomarginatum and their cytotoxicity against three human cancer cell lines

Lanostane triterpenoids are thought to be the main underlying preclinical antitumor secondary metabolites of the genus Ganoderma. To further explore the potential cytotoxic triterpenoids from Ganoderma luteomarginatum, the ethyl acetate soluble fraction of 95% ethanolic extract was systematically studied. Twelve previously undescribed lanostane-type triterpene acids were isolated from the fruiting bodies of G. luteomarginatum, and their structures were elucidated by extensive spectroscopic analyses. Among them, 11 compounds have an unusual β-configuration for OH-15. All isolates were assessed for cytotoxic activities using three human cancer cell lines (A549, HGC-27, and SMMC-7721) and one human normal cell line (LO2). (17Z)-3β,7β,15β-Trihydroxy-11,23-dioxolanost-8,17(20)-dien-26-oate and (20E)-15β-hydroxy-3,7,11,23-tetraoxolanost-20(22)-en-26-oate exhibited significant selective cytotoxicity against HGC-27 cells and A549 cells, respectively, with IC₅₀ values of 6.82 ± 0.77 and 13.67 ± 1.04 μM, while 3β,7β,15β-trihydroxy-11,23-dioxolanost-8-en-26-oate inhibited the proliferation of both A549 and SMMC-7721 cells. In addition, Hoechst fluorescence 33,258 staining and Annexin V-FITC/PI double staining proved that (17Z)-3β,7β,15β-trihydroxy-11,23-dioxolanost-8,17(20)-dien-26-oate could induce apoptosis in HGC-27 cells. Furthermore, a comparison of the results in this study and previous literature demonstrated that ganoderic alcohols have stronger cytotoxicity than the corresponding derivatives of ganoderic acid in the genus Ganoderma.

A new lanostane triterpenoid from Ganoderma resinaceum

A new 23,24,25,26,27-five-nortriterpenoid (1), named resinacein T, was isolated from an ethanol extract of the fruiting bodies in Ganoderma resinaceum of family Ganodermataceae, together with two known lanostane triterpenoids, 3β,7β,15α,24-tetrahydroxy-11,23-dioxo-lanost-8-en-26-oic acid (2), and resinacein O (3). The structures of compounds (1-3) were elucidated using NMR and MS methods.

Genomic data mining approaches for the discovery of anticancer peptides from Ganoderma sinense

Drug discovery from traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) typically involves the extraction of active ingredients from natural products with high biological activity and function from the vast repertoire of traditional Chinese medicine. This strategy cannot fully exploit the vast resources of TCM. Known as the longevity mushroom, Ganoderma spp. has been used as medicine for thousands of years. Recent studies have demonstrated its anticancer activity. While most research on Ganoderma spp. has focused on their polysaccharides or small molecules as potential anticancer components, possible anticancer peptides (ACPs) or proteins have been neglected. In this study, genomic data mining approaches were used to discover potential ACPs from Ganoderma sinense. A search against known ACPs identified 477 proteins in the G. sinense proteome that possess putative ACP sequences and that thus may serve as parent proteins. After in silico digestion by trypsin, 34 G. sinense proteins were predicted to release putative ACPs (by the mACPpred program). A subsequent sequence similarity comparison against known ACPs identified 15 trypsin-digested fragments as possible ACPs, of which 3 sequences were identical to known ACPs. The results indicated that ACPs may be involved in the anticancer activity of G. sinense and that genomic mining approaches can be effective strategies for discovering active components in TCM resources. The accumulation of genomic and proteomic data will undoubtedly accelerate drug discovery from TCM resources.

Lanostane-type triterpenoids from Ganoderma applanatum and their inhibitory activities on NO production in LPS-induced BV-2 cells

Five previously undescribed lanostane-type triterpenoids, including two triterpenoids with a rearranged side chain (applanoic acids E and F), one C21 nortriterpenoid (16,17-dehydroapplanone E), as well as two highly oxygenated lanostane triterpenoids (methyl applaniate B and applanoic acid G), were isolated from the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma applanatum (Pers.) Pat. Their structures were elucidated on the basis of spectroscopic analysis, X-ray crystallography and ECD data. Applanoic acid E, 16,17-dehydroapplanone E, and methyl applaniate B showed inhibitory effects on the release of NO by LPS-induced BV-2 cells.

(Ganodermataceae)

Amauroderma s.lat. has been defined mainly by the morphological features of non-truncate and double-walled basidiospores with a distinctly ornamented endospore wall. In this work, taxonomic and phylogenetic studies on species of Amauroderma s.lat. are carried out by morphological examination together with ultrastructural observations, and molecular phylogenetic analyses of multiple loci including the internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS), the large subunit of nuclear ribosomal RNA gene (nLSU), the largest subunit of RNA polymerase II (RPB1) and the second largest subunit of RNA polymerase II (RPB2), the translation elongation factor 1-α gene (TEF) and the β-tubulin gene (TUB). The results demonstrate that species of Ganodermataceae formed ten clades. Species previously placed in Amauroderma s.lat. are divided into four clades: Amauroderma s.str., Foraminispora, Furtadoa and a new genus Sanguinoderma. The classification of Amauroderma s.lat. is thus revised, six new species are described and illustrated, and eight new combinations are proposed. SEM micrographs of basidiospores of Foraminispora and Sanguinoderma are provided, and the importance of SEM in delimitation of taxa in this study is briefly discussed. Keys to species of Amauroderma s.str., Foraminispora, Furtadoa, and Sanguinoderma are also provided.

Lanostane triterpenoids with anti-inflammatory activities from Ganoderma lucidum

Ganoderma lucidum is one of the most famous medicinal fungi and is traditional Chinese medicine with various biological activities in Asian countries. To clarify its pharmacodynamic material basis, 15 lanostane triterpenoidswere obtained from the fruiting bodies of G. lucidum, including 8 previously undescribed lanostanoids. Their structures, including absolute configuration, were established based on ultraviolet, infrared, high-resolution electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry, 1D and 2D nuclear magnetic resonance, and X-ray crystallographic analysis. Ganoluciduone A was an unusual octonorlanostane, which was isolated from Ganoderma for the first time. In addition, the anti-inflammatory activities of all isolates were evaluated by observing their inhibitory effects on nitric oxide production in RAW264.7 cells activated by a lipopolysaccharide. Ganoluciduone B exhibited moderate inhibitory activity on nitric oxide production, with an inhibition rate of 45.5% at a concentration of 12.5 μM.

Lanostane triterpenoids from cultivated fruiting bodies of the wood-rot basidiomycete Ganoderma casuarinicola

Sixteen previously undescribed lanostane-type triterpenoids (1-16), together with fourteen known compounds, were isolated from cultivated fruiting bodies of the basidiomycete Ganoderma casuarinicola, a recently described species. The structures were elucidated on the basis of NMR spectroscopic and mass spectrometry data. Two of these compounds, 9 and 10, showed antimalarial activity with IC₅₀ values of 9.7 and 9.2 μg/ml, respectively.

C28 steroids from the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma resinaceum with potential anti-inflammatory activity

Eight undescribed ergostane-type steroids, (22E,24R)-ergosta-7,22-dien-3β,5α-diol- 6,5-olide, (22E,24R)-ergosta-7,9(11),22-trien-3β,5β,6β-triol, (22E,24R)-6β-methoxy ergosta-7,9(11),22-trien-3β,5α,14β-triol, (22E,24R)-9α,15α-dihydroxyergosta-4,6,8 (14),22-tetraen-3-one, (22E,24R)-ergosta-5,8,22-trien-3β,11α-dihydroxyl-7-one, (22E,24R)-ergosta-4,7,22-trien-3β,9α,14β-trihydroxyl-6-one, (22E,24R)-ergosta-7,22- dien-3β,9α,14β-trihydroxyl-6-one, and (22E,24R)-6β-methoxyergosta-7,22-dien-3β, 5α,9α,14β-tetraol, and twenty-one known analogues were isolated from the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma resinaceum Boud. Their chemical structures were determined on the basis of comprehensive spectroscopic analysis and X-ray crystal diffraction, as well as empirical pyridine-induced deshielding effects. Furthermore, selected compounds were evaluated for their inhibitory effects on macrophage activation using an inhibition of nitric oxide production assay. Finally, (22E,24R)-ergosta-5,8,22- trien-3β,11α-dihydroxyl-7-one, (22E,24R)-ergosta-4,7,22-trien-3β,9α,14β-tri hydroxyl-6-one, (22E,24R)-6β-methoxyergosta-7,22-dien-3β,5α,9α,14β-tetraol, (22E,24R)-ergosta-6,9,22-trien-3β,5α,8α-triol,ergost-6,22-dien-3β,5α,8α-triol, 5α,6α-epoxy-(22E,24R)-ergosta-8,22-diene-3β,7α-diol, 5α,6α-epoxy-(22E,24R)- ergosta-8(14),22-diene-3β,7α-diol, 5α,6α-epoxy-(22E,24R)-ergosta-8(14),22-diene-3β, 7β-diol, and 22E-7α-methoxy-5α,6α-epoxyergosta-8(14),22-dien-3β-ol showed inhibitory effects on NO production with IC₅₀ values ranging from 3.24 ± 0.02 to 35.19 ± 0.41 μM compared with L-NMMA (IC₅₀ 49.86 ± 2.13 μM), indicating that they have potential anti-inflammatory activity.

The Ganoderma weberianum-resinaceum lineage: multilocus phylogenetic analysis and morphology confirm G. mexicanum and G. parvulum in the Neotropics

Many species of Ganoderma exhibit a high phenotypic plasticity. Hence, particularly among them, the morphological species concept remains difficult to apply, resulting in a currently confused taxonomy; as a consequence, the geographical distribution range of many species also remains very uncertain. One of the areas with a strong uncertainty, as far as morphological species concept is concerned, is the Neotropics. It is common that names of species described from other regions, mainly from northern temperate areas, have been applied to Neotropical species. The aim of the present study was to determine which species might lay behind the G.weberianum complex in the Neotropics, using morphological studies and phylogenetic inferences based on both single (ITS) and multilocus (ITS, rpb2, and tef1-α) sequences. The results indicated that G.weberianumsensu Steyaert, which is the usually accepted concept for this taxon, was absent from the Neotropics. In this area, G.weberianumsensu Steyaert encompassed at least two phylogenetic species, which are tentatively, for the time being, identified as belonging to G.mexicanum and G.parvulum. These two species could be distinguished morphologically, notably by the ornamentation or its absence on their chlamydospores. The results also showed that additional species from the Neotropics might still exist, including, e.g., G.perzonatum, but their circumscription remains uncertain until now because of the paucity of material available. Furthermore, it was found that the current concept of G.resinaceum embraced a complex of species.

Additions to the knowledge of Ganoderma in Thailand: Ganoderma casuarinicola, a new record; and Ganoderma thailandicum sp. nov

Ganoderma is a cosmopolitan genus of mushrooms, which can cause root and butt rot diseases on many tree species. Members of this genus are particularly diverse in tropical regions. Some Ganoderma spp. are medicinally active and therefore are used to treat human diseases or as a dietary supplement. In this study, three Ganoderma strains were collected in tropical southern Thailand. Phylogenetic analyses of combined ITS, LSU, TEF1α and RPB2 sequence data indicated that the three strains grouped in a distinct lineage within laccate Ganoderma. One strain was collected from Surat Thani Province clustered in the G.casuarinicola clade with high statistical support (MLBS = 100% / MPBS = 98% / PP = 0.96), while the other two strains of Ganoderma, collected from Nakhon Si Thammarat Province, formed a distinct well-supported clade (MLBS = 100% / MPBS = 100% / PP = 1.00) and are described here as a new species. Ganodermacasuarinicola is reported here as a new record to Thailand. Morphological differences of the two taxa and their closely related taxa are discussed. Colour photographs of macro and micro morphological characteristics and a phylogenetic tree to show the placement of the new record and new species are provided.

Taxonomy and species diversity of Ganoderma species in the Garden Route National Park of South Africa inferred from morphology and multilocus phylogenies

Ganoderma is a cosmopolitan genus that encompasses species with cultural, economic, and pathogenic importance. Despite the importance of this genus, knowledge pertaining to the species diversity of Ganoderma in South Africa is limited. This study aimed at elucidating the identity and phylogenetic placements of Ganoderma samples obtained during a survey of wood-rotting fungi in the Garden Route National Park (GRNP) of South Africa, supplemented with isolates obtained from other localities across the country. Identification was achieved by means of multilocus phylogenetic inference combined with morphological evaluation. In total, eight distinct species of Ganoderma were recovered from different hosts and localities across the country. Of these, Ganoderma cf. cupreum and Ganoderma cf. resinaceum represent possible new records for South Africa. Two novel species are described, namely, G. eickeri. and G. knysnamense. Ganoderma eickeri, sp. nov., is characterized by a triquetrous and broadly attached basidiome, a sulcate or zonate yellowish brown to brown pilear surface, and ovoid to ellipsoid basidiospores. Ganoderma knysnamense is distinguished by an applanate to ungulate, sometimes convex, dimidiate to broadly attached basidiome, a chocolate-brown pilear surface covered with a hard woody-like crust and ellipsoid, broadly ellipsoid to ovoid basidiospores. The discovery of two new Ganoderma species in this study raises the known Ganoderma species in South Africa to 13.

Lanostane-type triterpenoids from the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma applanatum

Twelve previously undescribed lanostane-type triterpenoids, including three triterpenoids with a γ-lactone ring, namely applanlactones A‒C, four highly oxygenated lanostane triterpenoids, namely methyl applaniate A and applanoic acids B‒D, as well as five C21 nortriterpenoids, applanones A‒E were isolated from the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma applanatum (Pers.) Pat.. Their structures were elucidated by 1D, 2D NMR and MS spectra, as well as X-ray crystallographic analyses. Meanwhile, applanlactone A, methyl applaniate A and applanoic acid B showed inhibitory effects for the proliferation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) induced by transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) in vitro.

Lanostane triterpenoids from Ganoderma luteomarginatum and their cytotoxicity against four human cancer cell lines

Lanostane triterpenoids are major metabolites of macrofungi from the genus Ganoderma and possess enormous substitution diversity and remarkable biological activities, especially anticancer, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects. The present phytochemical investigation resulted in the isolation of nine undescribed lanostane triterpenoids and five known analogues from the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma luteomarginatum, which was first phytochemically studied by our group. Chemical structures were elucidated based on spectroscopic evidence. (5α,23E)-27-nor-lanosta-8,23-dien-3,7,25-trione and (5α,23E)-27-nor-3β-hydroxylanosta-8,23-dien-7,25-dione are undescribed triterpenoids with an unusual 27-nor-lanostane carbon skeleton. All isolates were assayed for their cytotoxic activities using four human cancer cell lines (HGC-27, HeLa, A549, and SMMC-7721) and one human normal cell line (LO2), and the structure-cytotoxicity relationships were preliminarily explored. (5α,24E)-3β-acetoxyl-26-hydroxylanosta-8,24-dien-7-one exhibited the highest cytotoxicity against HeLa and A549 cell lines, with IC₅₀ values of 1.29 and 1.50 μM, respectively.

Metabolism of ganoderic acids by a Ganoderma lucidum cytochrome P450 and the 3-keto sterol reductase ERG27 from yeast

Ganoderic acids, a group of oxygenated lanostane-type triterpenoids, are the major bioactive compounds produced by the well-known medicinal macro fungus Ganoderma lucidum. More than 150 ganoderic acids have been identified, and the genome of G. lucidum has been sequenced recently. However, the biosynthetic pathways of ganoderic acids have not yet been elucidated. Here, we report the functional characterization of a cytochrome P450 gene CYP512U6 from G. lucidum, which is involved in the ganoderic acid biosynthesis. CYP512U6 hydroxylates the ganoderic acids DM and TR at the C-23 position to produce hainanic acid A and ganoderic acid Jc, respectively. In addition, CYP512U6 can also hydroxylate a modified ganoderic acid DM in which the C-3 ketone has been reduced to hydroxyl by the sterol reductase ERG27 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. An NADPH-dependent cytochrome P450 reductase from G. lucidum was also isolated and characterized. These results will help elucidate the biosynthetic pathways of ganoderic acids.

Morphological and molecular identification of two new Ganoderma species on Casuarina equisetifolia from China

Ganoderma is a cosmopolitan white rot fungal genus, famous for its medicinal properties. In the present study, two new Ganoderma species were collected from south-eastern China and described on the basis of morphological characters and phylogenetic analyses of sequences of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region, the translation elongation factor 1-α gene (EF1-α) and the second subunit of RNA polymerase II (RPB2). Specimens of both species were found on living trees of Casuarinaequisetifolia. Ganodermaangustisporumsp. nov. is characterised by its sessile basidiomata and almond-shaped, slightly truncate, narrow basidiospores (9–11.3 × 4–5.2 µm). Ganodermacasuarinicolasp. nov. is characterised by its strongly laccate reddish-brown pileal surface, luminous yellow to yellowish-brown cutis and ellipsoid, truncate basidiospores (9–10.2 × 5–6 µm). The two new species are compared with their related taxa. Phylogenetic analyses confirmed that G.angustisporum and G.casuarinicola are distinct species within Ganoderma.

Lanostane triterpenes from the mushroom Ganoderma resinaceum and their inhibitory activities against α-glucosidase

Eighteen previously undescribed lanostane triterpenes and thirty known analogues were obtained from the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma resinaceum. Resinacein C was isolated from a natural source for the first time. The structures of all the above compounds were elucidated by extensive spectroscopic analysis and comparisons of their spectroscopic data with those reported in the literature. Furthermore, in an in vitro assay, Resinacein C, ganoderic acid Y, lucialdehyde C, 7-oxo-ganoderic acid Z₃, 7-oxo-ganoderic acid Z, and lucidadiol showed strong inhibitory effects against α-glucosidase compared with the positive control drug acarbose. The structure-activity relationships of ganoderma triterpenes on α-glucosidase inhibition showed that the C-24/C-25 double bond is necessary for α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. Moreover, the carboxylic acid group at C-26 and the hydroxy group at C-15 play important roles in enhancing inhibitory effects of these triterpenes.

Two new compounds from the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma philippii

Two new compounds, philippin (1) and 3β,9α,14α-trihydroxy-(22E,24R)-ergost-22-en-7-one (2), were isolated from the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma philippii. Their structures were elucidated on the basis of the spectroscopic technologies, including 1D and 2D NMR as well as MS. The bioassay of inhibitory activity against acetylcholinesterase (AChE) showed compound 1 exhibited weak inhibitory activity against AChE.

Lanostane-type triterpenoids from the fruiting body of Ganoderma calidophilum

To search for active anti-cancer constituents in the fruiting body of Ganoderma calidophilum, we have successfully isolated four previously undescribed spiro-lactone lanostane triterpenoids (spiroganocalitones A-D), two previously undescribed lanostanoids (ganodecalones A and B) together with twenty-three known ones. The structures of the six previously undescribed compounds were elucidated based on 1D, 2D-NMR, and HRMS analyses. Ganoderone A showed moderate cytotoxic activity against K562, BEL7402, and SGC790 cell lines with IC₅₀ values of 7.62, 6.28, and 3.55 μM, respectively.

Three new triterpenoids from Ganoderma theaecolum

Three new triterpenoids (1-3), together with four known triterpenoids (4-7), were isolated from the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma theaecolum. Their structures were elucidated on the basis of their spectroscopic data and chemical evidence. Compounds 4 and 6 exhibited antitumor activities against H460 cells with IC₅₀ values of 22.4 and 43.1 μM, respectively. And the cytotoxic activities of compounds 4 and 5 against MDA-MB-231 cancer cell lines were assayed with IC₅₀ values of 49.1 and 75.8 μM, respectively.

Chemical constituents from the fruiting bodies of Amauroderma subresinosum

The chemical investigation on the fruiting bodies of Amauroderma subresinosum led to the isolation of 10 compounds including 2 new ones named amaurosubresin (1) and erythro(23,24)-5α,6α-epoxyergosta-8-ene-7-one-3β,23-diol (2). Their structures were elucidated on the basis of 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy as well as MS. The bioassay of inhibitory activity against acetylcholinesterase (AChE) of two new isolates exhibited definite inhibitory activity.

Distinguishing commercially grown Ganoderma lucidum from Ganoderma lingzhi from Europe and East Asia on the basis of morphology, molecular phylogeny, and triterpenic acid profiles

In China and other countries of East Asia, so-called Ling-zhi or Reishi mushrooms are used in traditional medicine since several centuries. Although the common practice to apply the originally European name 'Ganoderma lucidum' to these fungi has been questioned by several taxonomists, this is still generally done in recent publications and with commercially cultivated strains. In the present study, two commercially sold strains of 'G. lucidum', M9720 and M9724 from the company Mycelia bvba (Belgium), are compared for their fruiting body (basidiocarp) morphology combined with molecular phylogenetic analyses, and for their secondary metabolite profile employing an ultra-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (UPLC-ESIMS) in combination with a high resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HR-ESI-MS). According to basidiocarp morphology, the strain M9720 was identified as G. lucidum s.str. whereas M9724 was determined as Ganoderma lingzhi. In molecular phylogenetic analyses, the M9720 ITS and beta-tubulin sequences grouped with sequences of G. lucidum s.str. from Europe whereas those from M9724 clustered with sequences of G. lingzhi from East Asia. We show that an ethanol extract of ground basidiocarps from G. lucidum (M9720) contains much less triterpenic acids than found in the extract of G. lingzhi (M9724). The high amount of triterpenic acids accounts for the bitter taste of the basidiocarps of G. lingzhi (M9724) and of its ethanol extract. Apparently, triterpenic acids of G. lucidum s.str. are analyzed here for the first time. These results demonstrate the importance of taxonomy for commercial use of fungi.

Lingzhilactones from Ganoderma lingzhi ameliorate adriamycin-induced nephropathy in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Several Ganoderma fungi are well-known for their medical uses to treat cancer, insomnia and kidney disease in East Asia. Triperpenoids and polysaccharides have been considered for a long time to be the major active components of the genus Ganoderma. The present study is to examine the effects of lingzhilactones from G. lingzhi on adriamycin-induced nephropathy in mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A combination of various chromatography led to the isolation of lingzhilactones A-C, their structures were identified by spectroscopic and computational methods. The intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) was detected with the carboxymethyl-H2-dichlorofluorescein diacetate fluoroprobe. The fibrotic markers were analyzed by real-time RT-PCR and Western blot analyses. Detection of SEAP was conducted with the chemiluminescent. Urine albumin was measured using an ELISA assay. Histology and immunohistochemical staining was used to assess fibrotic lesions in mice.

RESULTS

Three new lingzhilactones A-C (1-3) containing a fused lactone moiety were isolated from G. lingzhi. We found that 2 could inhibit ROS generation in a dose-dependent manner, inhibit mRNA expression of collagen IV, fibronectin, IL-6 and increase expression of Nrf2 in rat tubular epithelial cells. Furthermore, we found that 2 could reduce urinary albumin levels, abrogate myofibroblastic activation and inhibit the phosphorylation of Smad3 in adriamycin-induced mice.

CONCLUSIONS

The in vitro and in vivo results suggested that lingzhilactone B could protect against renal injuries by increasing the activities of antioxidants and inhibiting inflammation. The inhibition of Smad3 phosphorylation suggested that this substance displays in vivo antifibrotic activity by a mechanism that is dependent on disruption of Smad3. These results promote understanding of the traditional usage of G. lingzhi and provide promising findings which may be beneficial for anti-kidney disease drug design.

Neuroprotective and antioxidant lanostanoid triterpenes from the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma atrum

Five new lanostanoid triterpenes were isolated from the ethanol extract of the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma atrum. The structures of the isolated compounds were established based on 1D and 2D ((1)H-(1)H COSY, HMQC, and HMBC) NMR spectroscopy, in addition to high resolution mass spectrometry. The isolated compounds were tested in vitro for neuroprotective activities against 6-OHDA-induced cell death in SH-SY5Y cells and radical scavenging activities. As a result, compounds 2 and 5 exhibited potent neuroprotective activity against 6-OHDA-induced cell death in SH-SY5Y cells with the lowest IC50 value (0.5 μM) while compounds 1, 3 and 4 possessed significant neuroprotective activity with IC50 value less than 10 μM. Additionally, all tested compounds 1-6 showed the comparable free radical scavenging activities with the standard drug trolox in both ABTS (+) and DPPH experiment.

The complete mitochondrial genome of the medicinal fungus Ganoderma applanatum (Polyporales, Basidiomycota)

We have determined the complete nucleotide sequence of the mitochondrial genome of the medicinal fungus Ganoderma applanatum (Pers.) Pat. using the next-generation sequencing technology. The circular molecule is 119,803 bp long with a GC content of 26.66%. Gene prediction revealed genes encoding 15 conserved proteins, 25 tRNAs, the large and small ribosomal RNAs, all genes are located on the same strand except trnW-CCA. Compared with previously sequenced genomes of G. lucidum, G. meredithiae and G. sinense, the order of the protein and rRNA genes is highly conserved; however, the types of tRNA genes are slightly different. The mitochondrial genome of G. applanatum will contribute to the understanding of the phylogeny and evolution of Ganoderma and Ganodermataceae, the group containing many species with high medicinal values.

Anti-inflammatory activity on mice of extract of Ganoderma lucidum grown on rice via modulation of MAPK and NF-κB pathways

Ganoderma lucidum is a popular medicinal mushroom with anti-inflammatory potential. In the present study, the aim was to determine the anti-inflammatory effect and mode of action of G. lucidum grown on germinated brown rice (GLBR) in a mouse model of colitis. It was shown that GLBR suppressed the production of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophages and decreased the expression of COX-2, TNF-α, iNOS, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10 mRNAs. GLBR also inhibited activation of p38, ERK, JNK, MAPKs, and nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB). In a mouse model of colitis, colonic mucosal injury was evaluated using macroscopic, biochemical, and histopathological testing. Disease activity index (DAI), macroscopic score, and histological score significantly decreased upon GLBR treatment. Moreover, immunofluorescence studies indicated that DSS activates nuclear translocation of NF-κB in colon tissue, which is attenuated by GLBR extract. These findings suggest that GLBR is protective against colitis via inhibition of MAPK phosphorylation and NF-κB activation.

From 2000years of Ganoderma lucidum to recent developments in nutraceuticals

Medicinal mushrooms have been used for centuries as nutraceuticals to improve health and to treat numerous chronic and infectious diseases. One such mushroom is Ganoderma lucidum, commonly known as Lingzhi, a species revered as a medicinal mushroom for treating assorted diseases and prolonging life. The fungus is found in diverse locations, and this may have contributed to confusion regarding the correct taxonomic classification of the genus Ganoderma. G. lucidum was first used to name a specimen found in England and thereafter was naively applied to a different Ganoderma species found in Asia, commonly known as Chinese Lingzhi. Despite the taxonomic confusion, which has largely been uncorrected, the popularity of Lingzhi has escalated across the globe. The current taxonomic situation is now discussed accurately in this Special Issue on Ganoderma. Today it is a multi-billion dollar industry wherein Lingzhi is cultivated or collected from the wild and consumed as a tea, in alcoholic beverages, and as a nutraceutical to confer numerous health benefits. Consumption of nutraceuticals has grown in popularity, and it is becoming increasingly important that active ingredients be identified and that suppliers make substantiated health claims about their products. The objective of this article is to present a review of G. lucidum over the past 2000 years from prized ancient "herbal" remedy to its use in nutraceuticals and to the establishment of a 2.5 billion $ (US) industry.

Secondary metabolites from Ganoderma

Ganoderma is a genus of medicinal mushrooms. This review deals with secondary metabolites isolated from Ganoderma and their biological significance. Phytochemical studies over the last 40years led to the isolation of 431 secondary metabolites from various Ganoderma species. The major secondary compounds isolated are (a) C30 lanostanes (ganoderic acids), (b) C30 lanostanes (aldehydes, alcohols, esters, glycosides, lactones, ketones), (c) C27 lanostanes (lucidenic acids), (d) C27 lanostanes (alcohols, lactones, esters), (e) C24, C25 lanostanes (f) C30 pentacyclic triterpenes, (g) meroterpenoids, (h) farnesyl hydroquinones (meroterpenoids), (i) C15 sesquiterpenoids, (j) steroids, (k) alkaloids, (l) prenyl hydroquinone (m) benzofurans, (n) benzopyran-4-one derivatives and (o) benzenoid derivatives. Ganoderma lucidum is the species extensively studied for its secondary metabolites and biological activities. Ganoderma applanatum, Ganoderma colossum, Ganoderma sinense, Ganoderma cochlear, Ganoderma tsugae, Ganoderma amboinense, Ganoderma orbiforme, Ganoderma resinaceum, Ganoderma hainanense, Ganoderma concinna, Ganoderma pfeifferi, Ganoderma neo-japonicum, Ganoderma tropicum, Ganoderma australe, Ganoderma carnosum, Ganoderma fornicatum, Ganoderma lipsiense (synonym G. applanatum), Ganoderma mastoporum, Ganoderma theaecolum, Ganoderma boninense, Ganoderma capense and Ganoderma annulare are the other Ganoderma species subjected to phytochemical studies. Further phytochemical studies on Ganoderma could lead to the discovery of hitherto unknown biologically active secondary metabolites.

Accessing biological actions of Ganoderma secondary metabolites by in silico profiling

The species complex around the medicinal fungus Ganoderma lucidum Karst. (Ganodermataceae) is widely known in traditional medicines, as well as in modern applications such as functional food or nutraceuticals. A considerable number of publications reflects its abundance and variety in biological actions either provoked by primary metabolites, such as polysaccharides, or secondary metabolites, such as lanostane-type triterpenes. However, due to this remarkable amount of information, a rationalization of the individual Ganoderma constituents to biological actions on a molecular level is quite challenging. To overcome this issue, a database was generated containing meta-information, i.e., chemical structures and biological actions of hitherto identified Ganoderma constituents (279). This was followed by a computational approach subjecting this 3D multi-conformational molecular dataset to in silico parallel screening against an in-house collection of validated structure- and ligand-based 3D pharmacophore models. The predictive power of the evaluated in silico tools and hints from traditional application fields served as criteria for the model selection. Thus, the focus was laid on representative druggable targets in the field of viral infections (5) and diseases related to the metabolic syndrome (22). The results obtained from this in silico approach were compared to bioactivity data available from the literature. 89 and 197 Ganoderma compounds were predicted as ligands of at least one of the selected pharmacological targets in the antiviral and the metabolic syndrome screening, respectively. Among them only a minority of individual compounds (around 10%) has ever been investigated on these targets or for the associated biological activity. Accordingly, this study discloses putative ligand target interactions for a plethora of Ganoderma constituents in the empirically manifested field of viral diseases and metabolic syndrome which serve as a basis for future applications to access yet undiscovered biological actions of Ganoderma secondary metabolites on a molecular level.

Ganoderma pfeifferi--A European relative of Ganoderma lucidum

In contrast to well-studied and broadly used Ganoderma species, such as Ganoderma lucidum and Ganoderma applanatum, knowledge regarding Ganoderma pfeifferi is very limited. Herein is an overview of the phytochemistry, biological activities and possible applications of this mushroom species. In addition to triterpenoids and polysaccharides, G. pfeifferi contains unique sesquiterpenoids and other small molecular weight compounds. Some of these compounds exhibit remarkable antimicrobial activities in vitro and in vivo against multi-resistant bacteria, such as MRSA. Antiviral properties, UV-protection abilities and other activities are also known. Potential issues arising from the conversion of research results into practical applications are discussed.

Anti-diabetic effects of Ganoderma lucidum

Ganoderma lucidum is a white rot fungus widely used as a tonic for the promotion of longevity and health. Extracts of G. lucidum have been recognized as an alternative adjuvant treatment for diabetes. Among the many biologically active constituents of G. lucidum, polysaccharides, proteoglycans, proteins and triterpenoids have been shown to have hypoglycemic effects. G. lucidum polysaccharides have been reported to have hypoglycemic activity by increasing plasma insulin levels and decreasing plasma sugar levels in mice. Protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B is a promising therapeutic target in diabetes, and G. lucidum proteoglycan can inhibit this enzyme in vitro. Moreover, G. lucidum triterpenoids were shown to have inhibitory activity on aldose reductase and α-glucosidase that can suppress postprandial hyperglycemia. In addition, a protein Ling Zhi-8 extracted from G. lucidum significantly decreased lymphocyte infiltration and increased the antibody detection of insulin in diabetic mice. This review summarizes most of the research about the hypoglycemic action effects of polysaccharides, proteoglycans, proteins and tritrerpenoids from G. lucidum as a guide for future research.